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<!DOCTYPE html PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD HTML 4.01//EN" "http://www.w3.org/TR/html4/strict.dtd">
<html lang="eo">
<head>
<meta http-equiv="Content-Type" content="text/html; charset=UTF-8">
<link rel="stylesheet" type="text/css" href="/stilo/akademio.css">
<title>Fundamento de Esperanto</title>
<meta lang="eo" name="Description" content="Fundamento de Esperanto">
<script type="text/javascript" src="/ink/akademio.js"></script>
<meta name="Author" content="Bertilo Wennergren">
</head>
<body id="www-akademio-de-esperanto-org" class="fundamento">
<div id="enhavo">
<div class="div">
<h1 class="gramatiko">GRAMMAR</h1>
<hr class="mallonga">
<div class="div">
<h2 class="gramatiko">A) THE ALPHABET</h2>
<div class="gramatiko-alfabeto">
<table border="1" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="2">
<tr>
<td>
<span class="alfabeto">Aa,</span><br>a as in<br>„last“</td>
<td>
<span class="alfabeto">Bb,</span><br>b as in<br>„be“</td>
<td>
<span class="alfabeto">Cc,</span><br>ts as in<br>„wits“</td>
<td>
<span class="alfabeto">Ĉĉ,</span><br>ch as in<br>„church“</td>
<td>
<span class="alfabeto">Dd,</span><br>d as in<br>„do“</td>
<td>
<span class="alfabeto">Ee,</span><br>a as in<br>„make“</td>
<td>
<span class="alfabeto">Ff,</span><br>f as in<br>„fly“</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>
<span class="alfabeto">Gg,</span><br>g as in<br>„gun“</td>
<td>
<span class="alfabeto">Ĝĝ,</span><br>j as in<br>„join“</td>
<td>
<span class="alfabeto">Hh,</span><br>h as in<br>„half“</td>
<td>
<span class="alfabeto">Ĥĥ,</span><br>strongly<br>aspirated<br>h, „ch“<br>in
„loch“<br>(scotch)</td>
<td>
<span class="alfabeto">Ii,</span><br>i as in<br>„marine“</td>
<td>
<span class="alfabeto">Jj,</span><br>y as in<br>„yoke“</td>
<td>
<span class="alfabeto">Ĵĵ,</span><br>z as in<br>„azure“</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>
<span class="alfabeto">Kk,</span><br>k as in<br>„key“</td>
<td>
<span class="alfabeto">Ll,</span><br>l as in<br>„line“</td>
<td>
<span class="alfabeto">Mm,</span><br>m as in<br>„make“</td>
<td>
<span class="alfabeto">Nn,</span><br>n as in<br>„now“</td>
<td>
<span class="alfabeto">Oo,</span><br>o as in<br>„not“</td>
<td>
<span class="alfabeto">Pp,</span><br>p as in<br>„pair“</td>
<td>
<span class="alfabeto">Rr,</span><br>r as in<br>„rare“</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>
<span class="alfabeto">Ss,</span><br>s as in<br>„see“</td>
<td>
<span class="alfabeto">Ŝŝ,</span><br>sh as in<br>„show“</td>
<td>
<span class="alfabeto">Tt,</span><br>t as in<br>„tea“</td>
<td>
<span class="alfabeto">Uu,</span><br>u as in<br>„bull“</td>
<td>
<span class="alfabeto">Ŭŭ,</span><br>u as in<br>„mount“<br>(used
in<br>diphtongs)</td>
<td>
<span class="alfabeto">Vv,</span><br>v as in<br>„very“</td>
<td>
<span class="alfabeto">Zz,</span><br>z as in<br>„zeal“</td>
</tr>
</table>
</div>
<p class="noto">
<strong>Remark.</strong> ― If it be found
impraticable to print works with the
diacritical signs (<em>^,˘</em>), the
letter <em>h</em> may be
substituted for the sign
(<em>^</em>), and the sign (<em>˘</em>), may be altogether omitted.
</p>
</div>
<div class="div">
<h2 class="gramatiko">B) PARTS OF SPEECH</h2>
<ul class="alinee">
<li class="gramatiko">
<span class="numero-en-listo">1. </span>
There is no indefinite, and only one definite,
article, <em>la</em>, for all genders, numbers, and cases.
</li>
<li class="gramatiko">
<span class="numero-en-listo">2. </span>
Substantives are formed by adding <em>o</em> to the root.
For the plural, the letter <em>j</em> must be added to the singular.
There are two cases: the nominative and the
objective (accusative). The root with the added <em>o</em> is
the nominative, the objective adds an <em>n</em> after the <em>o</em>.
Other cases are formed by prepositions; thus, the
possessive (genitive) by <em>de</em>,
“of”; the dative by <em>al</em>,
“to”, the instrumental (ablative) by
<em>kun</em>, “with”, or
other preposition as the sense demands. E. g. root
<em>patr</em>, “father”;
<em>la patr'o</em>, “the
father”; la <em>patr'o'n</em>,
“the father” (objective), <em>de la patr'o</em>, “of the
father”;
<em>al la patr'o</em>, “to the
father”; <em>kun la patr'o</em>,
“with the
father”; <em>la patr'o'j</em>,
“the fathers”; <em>la
patr'o'j'n</em>, “the
fathers” (obj.), <em>por la
patr'o'j</em>, “for the fathers”.
</li>
<li class="gramatiko">
<span class="numero-en-listo">3. </span>
Adjectives are formed by adding <em>a</em> to the root.
The numbers and cases are the same as in substantives.
The comparative degree is formed by prefixing
<em>pli</em> (more); the superlative by <em>plej</em> (most). The word
“than” is rendered by <em>ol</em>, e. g. <em>pli blanka ol
neĝo</em>,
“whiter than snow”.
</li>
<li class="gramatiko">
<span class="numero-en-listo">4. </span>
The cardinal numerals do not change their forms
for the different cases. They are:
<em>unu</em> (1), <em>du</em>
(2), <em>tri</em> (3),
<em>kvar</em> (4), <em>kvin</em>
(5), <em>ses</em> (6),
<em>sep</em> (7), <em>ok</em>
(8), <em>naŭ</em> (9), <em>dek</em> (10),
<em>cent</em> (100), <em>mil</em> (1000).
The tens and hundreds are formed by simple junction
of the numerals, e. g. 533 = <em>kvin'cent tri'dek tri</em>.
Ordinals are formed by adding the adjectival <em>a</em> to
the cardinals, e. g. <em>unu'a</em>,
“first”; <em>du'a</em>,
“second”, etc.
Multiplicatives (as “threefold”,
“fourfold”, etc.) add
<em>obl</em>, e. g. <em>tri'obl'a</em>, “threefold”.
Fractionals add <em>on</em>, as <em>du'on'o</em>, “a half”;
<em>kvar'on'o</em>,
“a quarter”. Collective numerals add
<em>op</em>, as <em>kvar'op'e</em>,
“four together”.
Distributive prefix <em>po</em>, e. g., <em>po kvin</em>, “five apiece”.
Adverbials take <em>e</em>, e. g., <em>unu'e</em>, “firstly”, etc.
</li>
<li class="gramatiko">
<span class="numero-en-listo">5. </span>
The personal pronouns are: <em>mi</em>,
I; <em>vi</em>,
thou,
you; <em>li</em>,
he; <em>ŝi</em>,
she; <em>ĝi</em>,
it;
<em>si</em>, “self”; <em>ni</em>, “we”; <em>ili</em>,
“they”; <em>oni</em>,
“one”, “people”,
(French “on”).
Possessive pronouns are formed by suffixing to
the required personal, the adjectival termination. The
declension of the pronouns is identical with that of
substantives. E. g. <em>mi</em>,
“I”; <em>mi'n</em>,
“me” (obj.); <em>mi'a</em>,
“my”, “mine”.
</li>
<li class="gramatiko">
<span class="numero-en-listo">6. </span>
The verb does not change its form for numbers
or persons, e. g. <em>mi far'as</em>,
“I do”; <em>la patr'o
far'as</em>,
“the father does”; <em>ili
far'as</em>, “they do”.
<h3 class="verboj">Forms of the Verb:</h3>
<ul>
<li class="gramatiko">a) The present tense ends in <em>as</em>, e. g. <em>mi far'as</em>,
“I do”.</li>
<li class="gramatiko">b) The past tense ends in <em>is</em>,
e. g. <em>li far'is</em>, “he
did”.</li>
<li class="gramatiko">c) The future tense ends in <em>os</em>,
e. g. <em>ili far'os</em>,
“they will do”.</li>
<li class="gramatiko">ĉ) The subjunctive mood ends in <em>us</em>, e. g. <em>ŝi far'us</em>,
“she may do”.</li>
<li class="gramatiko">d) The imperative mood ends in <em>u</em>, e. g. <em>ni far'u</em>,
“let us do”.</li>
<li class="gramatiko">e) The infinitive mood ends in <em>i</em>, e. g. <em>fari</em>,
“to do”.</li>
</ul>
<p class="gra-en">There are two forms of the participle in the international
language, the changeable or adjectival, and
the unchangeable or adverbial.</p>
<ul>
<li class="gramatiko">f) The present participle active ends in <em>ant</em>, e. g.
<em>far'ant'a</em>, “he who is
doing”; <em>far'ant'e</em>,
“doing”.</li>
<li class="gramatiko">g) The past participle active ends in <em>int</em>, e. g. <em>far'int'a</em>,
“he who has done”; <em>far'int'e</em>, “having done”.</li>
<li class="gramatiko">ĝ) The future participle active ends in <em>ont</em>, e. g.
<em>far'ont'a</em>, “he who will
do”; <em>far'ont'e</em>,
“about to do”.</li>
<li class="gramatiko">h) The present participle passive ends in <em>at</em>, e. g.
<em>far'at'e</em>, “being
done”.</li>
<li class="gramatiko">ĥ) The past participle passive ends in <em>it</em>, e. g. <em>far'it'a</em>,
“that which has been done”; <em>far'it'e</em>, “having been
done”.</li>
<li class="gramatiko">i) The future participle passive ends in <em>ot</em>, e. g.
<em>far'ot'a</em>, “that which will be
done”; <em>far'ot'e</em>,
“about to be done”.</li>
</ul>
<p class="gra-en">
All forms of the passive are rendered by the respective
forms of the verb <em>est</em> (to be) and the participle passive
of the required verb; the preposition
used is <em>de</em>,
“by”. E. g. <em>ŝi est'as
am'at'a de ĉiu'j</em>, “she
is loved by every one”.
</p>
</li>
<li class="gramatiko">
<span class="numero-en-listo">7. </span>
Adverbs are formed by adding <em>e</em> to the root. The
degrees of comparison are the same as in adjectives,
e. g., <em>mi'a frat'o kant'as pli bon'e ol
mi</em>, “my brother
sings better than I”.
</li>
<li class="gramatiko">
<span class="numero-en-listo">8. </span>
All prepositions govern the nominative case.
</li>
</ul>
</div>
<div class="div">
<h2 class="gramatiko">C) GENERAL RULES</h2>
<ul class="alinee">
<li class="gramatiko">
<span class="numero-en-listo">9. </span>
Every word is to be read exactly as written,
there are no silent letters.
</li>
<li class="gramatiko">
<span class="numero-en-listo">10. </span>
The accent falls on the last syllable but one,
(penultimate).
</li>
<li class="gramatiko">
<span class="numero-en-listo">11. </span>
Compound words are formed by the simple
junction of roots, (the principal word standing last),
which are written as a single word, but, in elementary
works, separated by a small line ('). Grammatical
terminations are considered as independent words. E. g.
<em>vapor'ŝip'o</em>,
“steamboat” is composed of the roots
<em>vapor</em>,
“steam”, and <em>ŝip</em>, “a boat”, with
the substantival
termination <em>o</em>.
</li>
<li class="gramatiko">
<span class="numero-en-listo">12. </span>
If there be one negative in a clause, a second is
not admissible.
</li>
<li class="gramatiko">
<span class="numero-en-listo">15. </span>
In phrases answering the question “where?”
(meaning direction), the words take the termination
of the objective case; e. g. <em>kie'n vi
ir'as?</em>“where are
you going?”; “<em>dom'o'n</em>,
“home”; <em><a id="av-2595" href="/akademia_vortaro/index.html?serchas=1&id=2595" class="avligilo" title="Ligilo al la Akademia Vortaro">London</a>'o'n</em>, “to
London”,
etc.
</li>
<li class="gramatiko">
<span class="numero-en-listo">14. </span>
Every preposition in the international language
has a definite fixed meaning. If it be necessary to
employ some preposition, and it is not quite evident
from the sense which it should be, the word <em>je</em> is
used, which has no definite meaning; for example,
<em>ĝoj'i je tio</em>, “to rejoice
<em>over</em> it”;
<em>rid'i je tio</em>, “to laugh <em>at</em>
it”; <em>enu'o je la patr'uj'o</em>,
“a longing for one’s fatherland”.
In every language different prepositions, sanctioned
by usage, are employed in these dubious cases, in the
international language, one word, <em>je</em>, suffices for all.
Instead of <em>je</em>, the objective without a preposition may
be used, when no confusion is to be feared.
</li>
<li class="gramatiko">
<span class="numero-en-listo">15. </span>
The so-called “foreign” words, i. e. words which
the greater number of languages have derived from
the same source, undergo no change in the international
language, beyond conforming to its system of
orthography. ― Such is the rule with regard to primary
words, derivatives are better formed (from the primary word)
according to the rules of the international
grammar, e. g. <em>teatr'o</em>,
“theatre”, but <em>teatr'a</em>,
“theatrical”, (not <em>teatrical'a</em>), etc.
</li>
<li class="gramatiko">
<span class="numero-en-listo">16. </span>
The <em>a</em> of the article, and final <em>o</em> of substantives,
may be sometimes dropped <em>euphoniae gratia</em>, e. g.
<em>de l’ mond'o</em> for <em>de la mond'o</em>;
<em>Ŝiller’</em> for <em>Ŝiller'o</em>; in such
cases an apostrophe should be substituted for the
discarded vowel.
</li>
</ul>
</div>
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