buildings.bib

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@article{Surahman2015,
	Abstract = {The objective of this study is to analyze life cycle energy and CO2 emission profiles by employing an input-output analysis method for urban houses in major cities of Indonesia. Two surveys investigating building material inventory and household energy consumption within individual houses were conducted in Bandung in 2011 and 2012. The results show that, if reused and recycled materials were assumed to be zero, the averaged embodied energy for simple, medium and luxurious houses in Bandung was larger than that for their respective houses in Jakarta. Overall, the average annual energy consumption of all samples in Jakarta was approximately 20.6 GJ, which is 5.0 GJ larger than that in Bandung. In terms of life cycle energy, the operational energy accounted for 79{\%}-86{\%} and 69{\%}-81{\%} of the total for respective houses in Jakarta and Bandung. The profiles of life cycle CO2 emissions are similar to those of energy. The results of the scenario analysis prove that the promotion of reusing/recycling is important to reduce building material inputs/waste and their corresponding embodied energy. It is also important to reduce the use of air-conditioning for operational energy in the future by adopting passive cooling techniques wherever possible.},
	Author = {Surahman, Usep and Kubota, Tetsu and Higashi, Osamu},
	Doi = {10.3390/buildings5041131},
	Isbn = {2075-5309},
	Issn = {2075-5309},
	Journal = {Buildings},
	Keywords = {Indonesia,embodied energy,household energy consumption,input--output,life cycle assessment},
	Month = {oct},
	Number = {4},
	Pages = {1131--1155},
	Title = {{Life Cycle Assessment of Energy and CO2 Emissions for Residential Buildings in Jakarta and Bandung, Indonesia}},
	Url = {http://www.mdpi.com/2075-5309/5/4/1131},
	Volume = {5},
	Year = {2015}}

@article{Cao2017b,
	Author = {Cao, Zhi and Shen, Lei and Zhong, Shuai and Liu, Litao and Kong, Hanxiao and Sun, Yanzhi},
	Doi = {10.1111/jiec.12579},
	Issn = {10881980},
	Journal = {Journal of Industrial Ecology},
	Keywords = {China,Dynamic MFA,Housing stock,Industrial ecology,Probabilistic model,Uncertainty analysis},
	Month = {apr},
	Number = {2},
	Pages = {377--391},
	Title = {{A Probabilistic Dynamic Material Flow Analysis Model for Chinese Urban Housing Stock}},
	Url = {http://doi.wiley.com/10.1111/jiec.12579},
	Volume = {22},
	Year = {2018}}

@article{Reyna2015,
	Abstract = {Building stocks constitute enduring components of urban infrastructure systems, but little research exists on their residence time or changing environmental impacts. Using Los Angeles County, California, as a case study, a framework is developed for assessing the changes of building stocks in cities (i.e., a generalizable framework for estimating the construction and deconstruction rates), the residence time of buildings and their materials, and the associated embedded environmental impacts. In Los Angeles, previous land-use decisions prove not easily reversible, and past building stock investments may continue to constrain the energy performance of buildings. The average age of the building stock has increased steadily since 1920 and more rapidly after the post--World War II construction surge in the 1950s. Buildings will likely endure for 60 years or longer, making this infrastructure a quasi-permanent investment. The long residence time, combined with the physical limitations on outward growth, suggest that the Los Angeles building stock is unlikely to have substantial spatial expansion in the future. The construction of buildings requires a continuous investment in material, monetary, and energetic resources, resulting in environmental impacts. The long residence time of structures implies a commitment to use and maintain the infrastructure, potentially creating barriers to an urban area's ability to improve energy efficiency. The immotility of buildings, coupled with future environmental goals, indicates that urban areas will be best positioned by instituting strategies that ensure reductions in life cycle (construction, use, and demolition) environmental impacts.},
	Author = {Reyna, Janet L. and Chester, Mikhail V.},
	Doi = {10.1111/jiec.12211},
	Isbn = {1088-1980},
	Issn = {10881980},
	Journal = {Journal of Industrial Ecology},
	Keywords = {Buildings,Embedded environmental effects,Greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions,Industrial ecology,Sustainable city,Urban infrastructure growth},
	Month = {aug},
	Number = {4},
	Pages = {524--537},
	Title = {{The Growth of Urban Building Stock: Unintended Lock-in and Embedded Environmental Effects}},
	Url = {http://doi.wiley.com/10.1111/jiec.12211},
	Volume = {19},
	Year = {2015}}

@article{Tanikawa2014,
	Abstract = {This article describes research conducted for the Japanese government in the wake of the magnitude 9.0 earthquake and tsunami that struck eastern Japan on March 11, 2011. In this study, material stock analysis (MSA) is used to examine the losses of building and infrastructure materials after this disaster. Estimates of the magnitude of material stock that has lost its social function as a result of a disaster can indicate the quantities required for reconstruction, help garner a better understanding of the volumes of waste flows generated by that disaster, and also help in the course of policy deliberations in the recovery of disasterstricken areas. Calculations of the lost building and road materials in the five prefectures most affected were undertaken. Analysis in this study is based on the use of geographical information systems (GIS) databases and statistics; it aims to (1) describe in spatial terms what construction materials were lost, (2) estimate the amount of infrastructure material needed to rehabilitate disaster areas, and (3) indicate the amount of lost material stock that should be taken into consideration during government policy deliberations. Our analysis concludes that the material stock losses of buildings and road infrastructure are 31.8 and 2.1 million tonnes, respectively. This research approach and the use of spatial MSA can be useful for urban planners and may also convey more appropriate information about disposal based on the work of municipalities in disaster-afflicted areas.},
	Author = {Tanikawa, Hiroki and Managi, Shunsuke and Lwin, Cherry Myo},
	Doi = {10.1111/jiec.12126},
	Issn = {10881980},
	Journal = {Journal of Industrial Ecology},
	Keywords = {Buildings and infrastructure,Geographic information systems (GIS),Industrial ecology,Material stock analysis (MSA),Waste management},
	Month = {may},
	Number = {3},
	Pages = {421--431},
	Title = {{Estimates of Lost Material Stock of Buildings and Roads Due to the Great East Japan Earthquake and Tsunami}},
	Url = {http://doi.wiley.com/10.1111/jiec.12126},
	Volume = {18},
	Year = {2014}}

@article{Huang2013,
	Abstract = {Due to economic growth and improving of people's living standards, China is experiencing large scale building construction, which resulted in a shortage of domestic resource supplies and severe environmental impact. This study estimated materials demand and environmental impact from buildings in China from 1950 to 2050 based on MFA. Furthermore, the effect of prolonging the lifetime of buildings and strengthening materials recycling on reducing raw material demand, solid waste generation and CO2 emissions was investigated. The results indicated, for almost all scenarios, a strong drop in materials demand and related CO2 emissions for new buildings construction over the next years. From an environmental as well as a resource conservation point of view, this is a considerable conclusion. The iron ore and limestone demand from buildings construction will decrease around 2030, however, they always increase dependence on import for iron ore and accelerating depletion of limestone. Furthermore, prolonging lifetime of buildings and strengthening materials recycling are very effective methods to avoid more raw material consumption, waste generation and to mitigate CO2 emissions.},
	Author = {Huang, Tao and Shi, Feng and Tanikawa, Hiroki and Fei, Jinling and Han, Ji},
	Doi = {10.1016/j.resconrec.2012.12.013},
	Isbn = {0921-3449},
	Issn = {09213449},
	Journal = {Resources, Conservation and Recycling},
	Keywords = {Buildings,Construction and demolition,Dynamic material flow analysis,Environmental impact},
	Month = {mar},
	Pages = {91--101},
	Publisher = {Elsevier B.V.},
	Title = {{Materials demand and environmental impact of buildings construction and demolition in China based on dynamic material flow analysis}},
	Url = {http://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0921344912002273},
	Volume = {72},
	Year = {2013}}

@article{Mastrucci2017c,
	Abstract = {Demolition waste represents a significant portion of the total generated waste and has a high importance from both a waste management and a resource efficiency perspective. The urban context is highly relevant to assess the environmental impact of the end-of-life stage of buildings and potential for future reduction to properly design corresponding demolition waste management strategies. The goal of this paper is the development of a framework for the characterization of building material stocks and the assessment of the potential environmental impact associated with the end-of-life of buildings at the urban scale to support decision on waste management strategies. The methodology combines a bottom-up material stock model based on geographical information systems (GIS) and a spatial--temporal database with life cycle assessment (LCA) for the evaluation of end-of-life scenarios. The approach was tested for the city of Esch-sur-Alzette (Luxembourg) and provided significant results on the quantity and the composition of the housing material stock. Two alternative scenarios involving recycling rates of respectively 50{\%} and 70{\%} for inert materials were assessed and an average reduction potential of 25.6{\%} on abiotic depletion potential and 9.2{\%} on global warming potential was estimated.},
	Author = {Mastrucci, Alessio and Marvuglia, Antonino and Popovici, Emil and Leopold, Ulrich and Benetto, Enrico},
	Doi = {10.1016/j.resconrec.2016.07.003},
	Isbn = {0921-3449},
	Issn = {09213449},
	Journal = {Resources, Conservation and Recycling},
	Keywords = {Building material stock,Demolition waste treatment,Geographical information systems,Life cycle assessment,Urban scale},
	Month = {aug},
	Pages = {54--66},
	Publisher = {Elsevier B.V.},
	Title = {{Geospatial characterization of building material stocks for the life cycle assessment of end-of-life scenarios at the urban scale}},
	Url = {http://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0921344916301665},
	Volume = {123},
	Year = {2017}}

@article{Tanikawa2009,
	Abstract = {A huge amount of construction material is required in urban areas for developing and maintaining buildings and infrastructure. Ageing stocks, which were built during a period of rapid growth in Japan (1955?1973), will cause a new waste flow in the near future. In order to assess urban metabolism with regard to building and infrastructure, it is necessary to understand change in its material accumulation both ?spatially? and ?temporally?. In this analysis, material accumulation over time is elucidated using four-dimensional Geographical Information Systems (4d-GIS) data at an urban scale. An approximately 8 km2 urban area of Salford in Manchester, UK, and 11 km2 of Wakayama City centre, Japan, were selected as case study sites. In this analysis, the material stock of buildings, roadways and railways was estimated locally over time, using a 4d-GIS database: (1) to find the spatial distribution of construction materials over time, (2) to estimate the demolition curve of buildings based on characteristics of an area, and (3) to clarify material accumulation with vertical location, such as above and below ground, from the viewpoint of recyclability. By estimation of the demolition curve, the life span of buildings in an urban area was found to be shorter than the national average respectively at both sites: 81 years in the urban area of Salford compared with 128 years for the UK; and 28 years in Wakayama City centre compared with the Japanese national average of 40 years. In 2004, 47{\%} of total construction material was stocked in underground infrastructure in Wakayama City centre. Une quantit{\'{e}} consid{\'{e}}rable de mat{\'{e}}riaux de construction est n{\'{e}}cessaire dans les zones urbaines pour construire et entretenir les b{\^{a}}timents et les infrastructures. Les parcs b{\^{a}}tis vieillissants, qui ont {\'{e}}t{\'{e}} construits au cours d'une p{\'{e}}riode de croissance rapide au Japon (1955?1973) occasionneront un nouveau flux de d{\'{e}}chets dans un proche avenir. Afin d'{\'{e}}valuer le m{\'{e}}tabolisme urbain du point de vue des b{\^{a}}timents et des infrastructures, il est n{\'{e}}cessaire de comprendre {\`{a}} la fois dans l'espace et dans le temps les changements intervenant dans son accumulation de mat{\'{e}}riaux. Dans cette analyse, l'accumulation de mat{\'{e}}riaux au fil du temps est {\'{e}}lucid{\'{e}}e en utilisant les donn{\'{e}}es de Syst{\`{e}}mes d'Information G{\'{e}}ographique quadridimensionnels (SIG-4D) {\`{a}} une {\'{e}}chelle urbaine. Un secteur urbain d'environ 8 km2 de Salford, {\`{a}} Manchester, au Royaume-Uni, et 11 km2 du centre-ville de Wakayama, au Japon, ont {\'{e}}t{\'{e}} s{\'{e}}lectionn{\'{e}}s comme sites pour cette {\'{e}}tude de cas. Dans cette analyse, le parc de mat{\'{e}}riaux constitu{\'{e}} par les b{\^{a}}timents, les routes et les voies ferr{\'{e}}es a {\'{e}}t{\'{e}} estim{\'{e}} localement au fil du temps, en utilisant une base de donn{\'{e}}es SIG-4D: (1) pour d{\'{e}}couvrir la distribution spatiale des mat{\'{e}}riaux de construction au fil du temps, (2) pour estimer la courbe de d{\'{e}}molition des b{\^{a}}timents en se basant sur les caract{\'{e}}ristiques d'un secteur, et (3) pour clarifier l'accumulation de mat{\'{e}}riaux par leur emplacement vertical, tel qu'au-dessus et en dessous du sol, du point de vue de la recyclabilit{\'{e}}. Gr{\^{a}}ce {\`{a}} l'estimation de la courbe de d{\'{e}}molition, il a {\'{e}}t{\'{e}} d{\'{e}}couvert que la dur{\'{e}}e de vie des b{\^{a}}timents dans un secteur urbain est inf{\'{e}}rieure {\`{a}} la moyenne nationale sur les deux sites, respectivement: 81 ans dans le secteur urbain de Salford, compar{\'{e}} {\`{a}} 128 ans pour le Royaume-Uni; et 28 ans dans le centre-ville de Wakayama, compar{\'{e}} {\`{a}} la moyenne nationale japonaise de 40 ans. En 2004, 47{\%} de la totalit{\'{e}} des mat{\'{e}}riaux de construction, dans le centre-ville de Wakayama, {\'{e}}taient accumul{\'{e}}s dans les infrastructures souterraines. Mots cl{\'{e}}s: parc b{\^{a}}ti, Syst{\`{e}}mes d'Information G{\'{e}}ographique quadridimensionnels (SIG-4D), parc des infrastructures, flux de masse, intensit{\'{e}} en mat{\'{e}}riaux, analyse du parc de mat{\'{e}}riaux, d{\'{e}}veloppement durable, temps, flux de masse urbaine A huge amount of construction material is required in urban areas for developing and maintaining buildings and infrastructure. Ageing stocks, which were built during a period of rapid growth in Japan (1955?1973), will cause a new waste flow in the near future. In order to assess urban metabolism with regard to building and infrastructure, it is necessary to understand change in its material accumulation both ?spatially? and ?temporally?. In this analysis, material accumulation over time is elucidated using four-dimensional Geographical Information Systems (4d-GIS) data at an urban scale. An approximately 8 km2 urban area of Salford in Manchester, UK, and 11 km2 of Wakayama City centre, Japan, were selected as case study sites. In this analysis, the material stock of buildings, roadways and railways was estimated locally over time, using a 4d-GIS database: (1) to find the spatial distribution of construction materials over time, (2) to estimate the demolition curve of buildings based on characteristics of an area, and (3) to clarify material accumulation with vertical location, such as above and below ground, from the viewpoint of recyclability. By estimation of the demolition curve, the life span of buildings in an urban area was found to be shorter than the national average respectively at both sites: 81 years in the urban area of Salford compared with 128 years for the UK; and 28 years in Wakayama City centre compared with the Japanese national average of 40 years. In 2004, 47{\%} of total construction material was stocked in underground infrastructure in Wakayama City centre. Une quantit{\'{e}} consid{\'{e}}rable de mat{\'{e}}riaux de construction est n{\'{e}}cessaire dans les zones urbaines pour construire et entretenir les b{\^{a}}timents et les infrastructures. Les parcs b{\^{a}}tis vieillissants, qui ont {\'{e}}t{\'{e}} construits au cours d'une p{\'{e}}riode de croissance rapide au Japon (1955?1973) occasionneront un nouveau flux de d{\'{e}}chets dans un proche avenir. Afin d'{\'{e}}valuer le m{\'{e}}tabolisme urbain du point de vue des b{\^{a}}timents et des infrastructures, il est n{\'{e}}cessaire de comprendre {\`{a}} la fois dans l'espace et dans le temps les changements intervenant dans son accumulation de mat{\'{e}}riaux. Dans cette analyse, l'accumulation de mat{\'{e}}riaux au fil du temps est {\'{e}}lucid{\'{e}}e en utilisant les donn{\'{e}}es de Syst{\`{e}}mes d'Information G{\'{e}}ographique quadridimensionnels (SIG-4D) {\`{a}} une {\'{e}}chelle urbaine. Un secteur urbain d'environ 8 km2 de Salford, {\`{a}} Manchester, au Royaume-Uni, et 11 km2 du centre-ville de Wakayama, au Japon, ont {\'{e}}t{\'{e}} s{\'{e}}lectionn{\'{e}}s comme sites pour cette {\'{e}}tude de cas. Dans cette analyse, le parc de mat{\'{e}}riaux constitu{\'{e}} par les b{\^{a}}timents, les routes et les voies ferr{\'{e}}es a {\'{e}}t{\'{e}} estim{\'{e}} localement au fil du temps, en utilisant une base de donn{\'{e}}es SIG-4D: (1) pour d{\'{e}}couvrir la distribution spatiale des mat{\'{e}}riaux de construction au fil du temps, (2) pour estimer la courbe de d{\'{e}}molition des b{\^{a}}timents en se basant sur les caract{\'{e}}ristiques d'un secteur, et (3) pour clarifier l'accumulation de mat{\'{e}}riaux par leur emplacement vertical, tel qu'au-dessus et en dessous du sol, du point de vue de la recyclabilit{\'{e}}. Gr{\^{a}}ce {\`{a}} l'estimation de la courbe de d{\'{e}}molition, il a {\'{e}}t{\'{e}} d{\'{e}}couvert que la dur{\'{e}}e de vie des b{\^{a}}timents dans un secteur urbain est inf{\'{e}}rieure {\`{a}} la moyenne nationale sur les deux sites, respectivement: 81 ans dans le secteur urbain de Salford, compar{\'{e}} {\`{a}} 128 ans pour le Royaume-Uni; et 28 ans dans le centre-ville de Wakayama, compar{\'{e}} {\`{a}} la moyenne nationale japonaise de 40 ans. En 2004, 47{\%} de la totalit{\'{e}} des mat{\'{e}}riaux de construction, dans le centre-ville de Wakayama, {\'{e}}taient accumul{\'{e}}s dans les infrastructures souterraines. Mots cl{\'{e}}s: parc b{\^{a}}ti, Syst{\`{e}}mes d'Information G{\'{e}}ographique quadridimensionnels (SIG-4D), parc des infrastructures, flux de masse, intensit{\'{e}} en mat{\'{e}}riaux, analyse du parc de mat{\'{e}}riaux, d{\'{e}}veloppement durable, temps, flux de masse urbaine},
	Author = {Tanikawa, Hiroki and Hashimoto, Seiji},
	Doi = {10.1080/09613210903169394},
	Isbn = {0961-3218},
	Issn = {0961-3218},
	Journal = {Building Research {\&} Information},
	Keywords = {4d gis,4d-gis,building stock,flows,four-dimensional geographical information systems,infrastructure stock,mass,material intensity,material stock analysis,sustainable development,time,urban mass flows,urban metabolism},
	Number = {5-6},
	Pages = {483--502},
	Title = {{Urban stock over time: spatial material stock analysis using 4d-GIS}},
	Volume = {37},
	Year = {2009}}

@article{Wang2015,
	Abstract = {Urbanization and real estate development are two mighty impetuses for the growth of China. An enhanced dynamic modeling has been devised to explore stocks and flows of buildings in the country and to quantify the related steel cycle. The uncertainties of the variables and results are investigated by the means of Monte Carlo method and sampling analysis. The building stocks are expected to increase to some 85--130 billion m2in the mid-century, about 40--100{\%} up from the current level. Throughout China but in urban areas in particular, concrete structures are replacing the buildings made of wood, clay brick, and primitive materials. By 2050 every two out of three buildings in China will be reinforced concrete- or steel-framed, leading to substantial demand for ferrous metals. Scenarios analysis shows that a slowing down in the building stock expansion will likely occur in China in no more than ten years. This may open up a transition with profound industrial and resource implications. Increasing businesses for the construction industry may emerge from maintenance, retrofitting, and end-of-life management of existing buildings. The steel industry shall reform its capacity to conform to the growingly available secondary resources and the declining requirement for construction steel. Efficient and appropriate recycling of steel content from waste concrete will play an important role in material conservation. A collaboration of improvements in process material efficiency with lifetime extension and application of high-strength steel may save nearly 40{\%} of primary iron ores for building use in the coming four decades.},
	Author = {Wang, Tao and Tian, Xin and Hashimoto, Seiji and Tanikawa, Hiroki},
	Doi = {10.1016/j.resconrec.2015.07.021},
	Isbn = {0921-3449},
	Issn = {09213449},
	Journal = {Resources, Conservation and Recycling},
	Keywords = {Buildings,Dynamic stock and flow analysis,Monte Carlo simulation,Steel Intensity in buildings,Steel cycle},
	Month = {oct},
	Pages = {205--215},
	Publisher = {Elsevier B.V.},
	Title = {{Concrete transformation of buildings in China and implications for the steel cycle}},
	Url = {http://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0921344915300549},
	Volume = {103},
	Year = {2015}}

@article{Hu2010,
	Abstract = {Of all materials extracted from the earth's crust, the construction sector uses 50{\%}, producing huge amounts of construction and demolition waste (CDW). In Beijing, presently 35 million metric tons per year (megatonnes/year [Mt/yr]) of CDW are generated. This amount is expected to grow significantly when the first round of mass buildings erected in the 1990s starts to be demolished. In this study, a dynamic material flow analysis (MFA) is conducted for Beijing's urban housing system, with the demand for the stock of housing floor area taken as the driver. The subsequent effects on construction and demolition flows of housing floor area and the concurrent consumption and waste streams of concrete are investigated for Beijing from 1949 and projected through 2050. The per capita floor area (PCFA) is a key factor shaping the material stock of housing. Observations in Beijing, the Netherlands, and Norway indicate that PCFA has a strong correlation with the local gross domestic product (GDP). The lifetime of dwellings is one of the most important variables influencing future CDW generation. Three scenarios, representing the current trend extension, high GDP growth, and lengthening the lifetime of dwellings, are analyzed. The simulation results show that CDW will rise, unavoidably. A higher growth rate of GDP and the consequent PCFA will worsen the situation in the distant future. Prolonging the lifetime of dwellings can postpone the arrival of the peak CDW. From a systematic view, recycling is highly recommended for long-term sustainable CDW management.},
	Author = {Hu, Mingming and {Van Der Voet}, Ester and Huppes, Gjalt},
	Doi = {10.1111/j.1530-9290.2010.00245.x},
	Isbn = {1530-9290},
	Issn = {10881980},
	Journal = {Journal of Industrial Ecology},
	Keywords = {Concrete,Dynamic modeling,Gross domestic product (GDP),Industrial ecology,Per capita floor area (PCFA),Waste projection},
	Month = {may},
	Number = {3},
	Pages = {440--456},
	Title = {{Dynamic Material Flow Analysis for Strategic Construction and Demolition Waste Management in Beijing}},
	Url = {http://doi.wiley.com/10.1111/j.1530-9290.2010.00245.x},
	Volume = {14},
	Year = {2010}}

@article{Mastrucci2017b,
	Abstract = {Developing countries face a crisis of deteriorating and unsafe human settlements conditions. Few studies examine the resources and energy required to provide everybody with decent housing. This study presents a generic methodology for the estimation of Life Cycle Energy (LCE) requirements to meet the housing gap and provide basic comfort to everybody in a developing country, based on standards of safety, durability and indoor temperature and humidity limits. The methodology includes the operationalization of this decent housing standard into materials and equipment; development of appropriate building archetypes; calculation of embodied and operating energy using a building simulation model; a parametric analysis to investigate the range of uncertainty in LCE and the attribution to different contextual conditions and energy savings measures. Results for the test case India showed that LCE of decent housing can significantly vary depending on climatic conditions, building typology, construction materials, technical equipment for space cooling-dehumidification and user behaviour. Embodied energy accounts for 27--53{\%} of the LCE, depending on the building type and climate. LCE savings of up to 44{\%} can be achieved with low embodied energy materials, building envelope insulation, ceiling fans and more efficient air-conditioning systems.},
	Author = {Mastrucci, Alessio and Rao, Narasimha D.},
	Doi = {10.1016/j.enbuild.2017.07.072},
	Issn = {03787788},
	Journal = {Energy and Buildings},
	Keywords = {Decent housing,Developing countries,Dynamic energy simulation,Energy savings,Life cycle energy,Parametric analysis,Policy decision support,Poverty,Uncertainty},
	Month = {oct},
	Pages = {629--642},
	Publisher = {Elsevier B.V.},
	Title = {{Decent housing in the developing world: Reducing life-cycle energy requirements}},
	Url = {http://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0378778817307260},
	Volume = {152},
	Year = {2017}}

@article{Heeren2018jie,
	Author = {Heeren, Niko and Hellweg, Stefanie},
	Doi = {10.1111/jiec.12739},
	Issn = {10881980},
	Journal = {Journal of Industrial Ecology},
	Month = {mar},
	Title = {{Tracking Construction Material over Space and Time: Prospective and Geo-referenced Modeling of Building Stocks and Construction Material Flows}},
	Url = {http://doi.wiley.com/10.1111/jiec.12739 https://doi.org/10.3929/ethz-b-000238488},
	Year = {2018}}

@article{Bergsdal2007a,
	Abstract = {The architecture, engineering and construction industry is a major producer of waste, and a major consumer of primary materials. This study presents a method for analysing the dynamics of both floor area and material use in residential housing. The population's demand for housing represents the driver in the system, and the subsequent effects on stocks and flows of residential floor area and building materials in Norway are investigated from 1900 to the projected demands for 2100. Results show that knowledge about past activity levels is important in projecting future levels. Scenarios are applied to the input parameters in the dynamic model to investigate the impacts of changes in these, including variations in material usage (concrete and wood) and material density. All but one scenario suggest a continued increase in the residential housing stock, although at diminishing growth rates, and a substantial increase in demolition, renovation and construction activity in the last half of the present century....},
	Author = {Bergsdal, H{\aa}vard and Bratteb{\o}, Helge and Bohne, Rolf A. and M{\"{u}}ller, Daniel B.},
	Doi = {10.1080/09613210701287588},
	Isbn = {0961-3218$\backslash$r1466-4321},
	Issn = {0961-3218},
	Journal = {Building Research {\&} Information},
	Keywords = {building stock,demolition,dwelling stock,dynamic material flow analysis,materials demand,trends,waste generation},
	Month = {oct},
	Number = {5},
	Pages = {557--570},
	Title = {{Dynamic material flow analysis for Norway's dwelling stock}},
	Url = {http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/09613210701287588},
	Volume = {35},
	Year = {2007}}

@article{Kleemann2016,
	Author = {Kleemann, Fritz and Lederer, Jakob and Rechberger, Helmut and Fellner, Johann},
	Doi = {10.1111/jiec.12446},
	Issn = {10881980},
	Journal = {Journal of Industrial Ecology},
	Keywords = {building material,building stock,geographic information systems (GIS),industrial ecology,urban metabolism,urban mining},
	Month = {jul},
	Pages = {1--13},
	Title = {{GIS-based Analysis of Vienna's Material Stock in Buildings}},
	Url = {http://doi.wiley.com/10.1111/jiec.12446},
	Year = {2016}}

@article{Marcellus-Zamora2016,
	Abstract = {The construction industry is an important contributor to urban economic development and consumes large volumes of building material that are stocked in cities over long periods. Those stocked spaces store valuable materials that may be available for recovery in the future. Thus quantifying the urban building stock is important for managing construction materials across the building life cycle. This article develops a new approach to urban building material stock analysis (MSA) using land-use heuristics. Our objective is to characterize buildings to understand materials stocked in place by: (1) developing, validating, and testing a new method for characterizing building stock by land-use type and (2) quantifying building stock and determining material fractions. We conduct a spatial MSA to quantify materials within a 2.6-square-kilometer section of Philadelphia from 2004 to 2012. Data were collected for buildings classified by land-use type from many sources to create maps of material stock and spatial material intensity. In the spatial MSA, the land-use type that returned the largest footprint (by percentage) and greatest (number) of buildings were civic/institutional (42{\%}; 147) and residential (23{\%}; 275), respectively. The model was validated for total floor space and the absolute overall error (n = 46; 20{\%}) in 2004 and (n = 47; 24{\%}) in 2012. Typically, commercial and residential land-use types returned the lowest overall error and weighted error. We present a promising alternative method for characterizing buildings in urban MSA that leverages multiple tools (geographical information systems [GIS], design codes, and building models) and test the method in historic Philadelphia. {\textcopyright} 2015, Yale University.},
	Author = {Marcellus-Zamora, Kimberlee A. and Gallagher, Patricia M. and Spatari, Sabrina and Tanikawa, Hiroki},
	Doi = {10.1111/jiec.12327},
	Isbn = {10881980 (ISSN)},
	Issn = {10881980},
	Journal = {Journal of Industrial Ecology},
	Keywords = {building stock,construction materials,geographical information systems (GIS),industrial ecology,land use,material stock analysis (MSA)},
	Month = {oct},
	Number = {5},
	Pages = {1025--1037},
	Title = {{Estimating Materials Stocked by Land-Use Type in Historic Urban Buildings Using Spatio-Temporal Analytical Tools}},
	Url = {http://doi.wiley.com/10.1111/jiec.12327},
	Volume = {20},
	Year = {2016}}

@article{Mesta2018a,
	Abstract = {Building stock constitutes a huge repository of constructionmaterials in a city and a potential source for replacing primary resources in the future. This article describes the application of a methodological approach for analyzing the material stock (MS) in buildings and its spatial distribution at a city-wide scale. A young Latin-American city, the city of Chiclayo in Peru, was analyzed by combining geographical information systems (GIS) data, census information, and data collected from different sources. Application of the methodology yielded specific indicators for the physical size of buildings (i.e., gross floor area and number of stories) and their material composition. The overall MS in buildings, in 2007, was estimated at 24.4million tonnes (Mt), or 47 tonnes per capita. This mass is primarily composed of mineral materials (97.7{\%}), mainly concrete (14.1 Mt), while organic materials (e.g., 0.15 Mt of wood) and metals (e.g., 0.40 Mt of steel) constitute the remaining share (2.3{\%}). Moreover, historical census data and projections were used to evaluate the changes in the MS from 1981 to 2017; showing a 360{\%} increase of the MS in the last 36 years. This study provides essential supporting information for urban planners, helping to provide a better understanding of the availability of resources in the city and its future potential supply for recycling as well as to develop strategies for the management of construction and demolition waste. Introduction},
	Author = {Mesta, Carlos and Kahhat, Ramzy and Santa-Cruz, Sandra},
	Doi = {10.1111/jiec.12723},
	Issn = {10881980},
	Journal = {Journal of Industrial Ecology},
	Keywords = {geographical information systems},
	Month = {jan},
	Number = {0},
	Pages = {1--12},
	Title = {{Geospatial Characterization of Material Stock in the Residential Sector of a Latin-American City}},
	Url = {http://doi.wiley.com/10.1111/jiec.12723},
	Volume = {00},
	Year = {2018}}

@article{Fernandez2007,
	Author = {Fern{\'{a}}ndez, John E.},
	Doi = {10.1162/jie.2007.1199},
	Issn = {10881980},
	Journal = {Journal of Industrial Ecology},
	Month = {apr},
	Number = {2},
	Pages = {99--115},
	Title = {{Resource Consumption of New Urban Construction in China}},
	Url = {http://doi.wiley.com/10.1162/jie.2007.1199},
	Volume = {11},
	Year = {2007}}

@article{Muller2006,
	Abstract = {This article discusses the role of lifestyle in physical material accounting and introduces a new method for simultaneously determining national or regional resource demand and waste generation through estimations of the population and its lifestyle, which is manifested in the stocks of service providing goods, their composition and lifetimes. Improving our comprehension of the stocks in use is essential for environmental policy making because (1) they are becoming the most important resource providers, (2) they are important drivers for resource and energy consumption as well as waste and emission generation, and (3) their magnitudes and dynamics are the parts of the material cycles that is usually least understood. A generic dynamic material flow analysis model is presented and applied for the diffusion of concrete in the Dutch dwelling stock for the period of 1900--2100. Simulation results are illustrated for a standard scenario and a parameter variation. The results show that (1) construction and demolition flows follow a cyclical behaviour, (2) the cycles of construction and demolition flows are phase displaced in the first half of the 21st century, with decreasing construction and increasing demolition, and (3) growth of the dwelling stock is becoming increasingly more material intensive as a growing amount of material is used for replacements. The presented stock dynamics approach can principally be applied for any anthropogenic material stock; however, it is most useful for the examination of metabolic consequences of diffusion processes of durable and fixed capital stocks.},
	Author = {M{\"{u}}ller, Daniel B.},
	Doi = {10.1016/j.ecolecon.2005.09.025},
	Issn = {09218009},
	Journal = {Ecological Economics},
	Keywords = {MFA,doi wrong,essential},
	Month = {aug},
	Number = {1},
	Pages = {142--156},
	Title = {{Stock dynamics for forecasting material flows---Case study for housing in The Netherlands}},
	Url = {http://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S092180090500460X},
	Volume = {59},
	Year = {2006}}

@article{Blengini2009a,
	Abstract = {One of the most challenging issues presently facing policymakers and public administrators in Italy concerns what to do with waste materials from building dismantling activities and to understand whether, and to what extent, the ever-increasing quantity of demolition waste can replace virgin materials. The paper presents the results from a research programme that was focused on the life cycle assessment (LCA) of a residential building, located in Turin, which was demolished in 2004 by controlled blasting. A detailed LCA model was set-up, based on field measured data from an urban area under demolition and re-design, paying attention to the end-of-life phase and supplying actual data on demolition and rubble recycling. The results have demonstrated that, while building waste recycling is economically feasible and profitable, it is also sustainable from the energetic and environmental point of view. Compared to the environmental burdens associated with the materials embodied in the building shell, the recycling potential is 29{\%} and 18{\%} in terms of life cycle energy and greenhouse emissions, respectively. The recycling potential of the main building materials was made available in order to address future demolition projects and supply basic knowledge in the design for dismantling field. {\textcopyright} 2008 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.},
	Author = {Blengini, Gian Andrea},
	Doi = {10.1016/j.buildenv.2008.03.007},
	Isbn = {03601323},
	Issn = {03601323},
	Journal = {Building and Environment},
	Keywords = {Aggregates,Demolition,LCA,Life cycle,Recycling,Resource conservation},
	Month = {feb},
	Number = {2},
	Pages = {319--330},
	Title = {{Life cycle of buildings, demolition and recycling potential: A case study in Turin, Italy}},
	Url = {http://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0360132308000450},
	Volume = {44},
	Year = {2009}}

@article{Han2013,
	Abstract = {Materials stocked in infrastructure provide necessary personal and economic services, and are also closely linked with massive resource extraction, energy consumption and waste generation. To support policy deliberations toward regional harmony and sustainable development, this paper examines the temporal change during 1978-2008 and spatial patterns of ten types of materials stocked in four major infrastructures (residential buildings, roads, railways, and water pipelines) in 31 provinces in China, and diagnoses regional disparity and driving factors by Theil index and multivariable regression based on panel data. It was found that the total material stock has boomed to 42.5 billion tons in 2008, with its per capita level increased by nine times over that in 1978. Over 90 {\%} of materials are concentrated in residential buildings and roads, and are spatially inclined to decrease from coastal regions to inland areas. Since China has shifted its strategy from an inclined to harmonious regional development, the overall inequality of per capita material stock has been changing toward equality with its scale contributed mainly by inter-regional inequality, and downward trend affected dominantly by intra-regional inequality. To balance the growth speed across regions meanwhile, to develop economy and attract foreign investment in each region, would be a promising route towards reducing regional inequality. Moreover, the enhancement of governmental performance and construction of each sector's share would also be effective for decreasing inter-regional gaps.},
	Author = {Han, Ji and Xiang, Wei-Ning},
	Doi = {10.1007/s11625-012-0196-y},
	Isbn = {1862-4065},
	Issn = {1862-4065},
	Journal = {Sustainability Science},
	Keywords = {Material stock,Multivariable regression,Panel data,Regional disparity,Theil index},
	Month = {oct},
	Number = {4},
	Pages = {553--564},
	Title = {{Analysis of material stock accumulation in China's infrastructure and its regional disparity}},
	Url = {http://link.springer.com/10.1007/s11625-012-0196-y},
	Volume = {8},
	Year = {2013}}

@article{Gontia2018,
	Abstract = {Material intensity coefficient (MIC) databases are crucial for bottom-up material stock studies. However, MIC databases are site specific and not available in many countries. For this reason, a MIC database of residential buildings in Sweden was created in this study. As these had not previously been explored, considerable attention was paid to MIC database results, variables and limitations. Next, to contextualize the results, the database was compared and discussed with other studies in other geographical scales and regions. The MIC database is based on (1) specialized architectural-data and (2) densities of construction materials. The study looked at 46 typical residential buildings in Sweden, 12 single-family (SF) and 34 multi-family (MF) structures, built within the time period 1880{\"{o}}2010. The results show specific trends for material intensity and composition, but also for the mass distribution of different building elements. Additionally, it was shown that the number of floors and the footprint size of a building have a considerable impact on the MICs, especially for buildings with a low number of floors, such as SF structures. Furthermore, when compared to MIC databases from other countries, the study database, which relates to Sweden, shows a higher intensity for wood and steel. Finally, contradictory MIC results for similar geographical regions were highlighted and discussed. This showed that to achieve consistent standardized MIC databases, further analysis of MIC databases for different geographical scales and regions are needed, and this is therefore recommended.},
	Author = {Gontia, Paul and N{\"{a}}geli, Claudio and Rosado, Leonardo and Kalmykova, Yuliya and {\"{O}}sterbring, Magnus},
	Doi = {10.1016/j.resconrec.2017.11.022},
	Issn = {18790658},
	Journal = {Resources, Conservation and Recycling},
	Keywords = {Built environment,Material intensity coefficient,Material stock,Residential buildings,Sweden},
	Number = {November 2017},
	Pages = {228--239},
	Publisher = {Elsevier},
	Title = {{Material-intensity database of residential buildings: A case-study of Sweden in the international context}},
	Url = {https://doi.org/10.1016/j.resconrec.2017.11.022},
	Volume = {130},
	Year = {2018}}

@book{Gruhler2002a,
	Author = {Gruhler, K and B{\"{o}}hm, R and Deilmann, C and Schiller, G},
	Isbn = {3-933053-18-8},
	Pages = {318},
	Title = {{Stofflich-energetische Geb{\"{a}}udesteckbriefe - Geb{\"{a}}udevergleiche und Hochrechnungen f{\"{u}}r Bebauungsstrukturen}},
	Url = {http://nbn-resolving.de/urn:nbn:de:0168-ssoar-396855},
	Volume = {38},
	Year = {2002}}

@article{Condeixa2017,
	Abstract = {The extensive use of materials in building stocks contributes to the scarcity of natural resources and impacts from construction and demolition waste (CDW). Therefore, the concern with the efficient use of materials and CDW management made several countries conducted mapping, analysis and performance improvement in activities related to CDW using Material Flow Analysis (MFA). The city of Rio de Janeiro had a high urban development and building stock growth from the beginning of the last century, in which the amount of material consumed has not been documented. This study presents an MFA approach to assess the materials in-use and further flows of CDW from the residential building stock in the city of Rio de Janeiro. The material in-use was estimated from the extrapolation of the Material Intensities (MI) per different building types to the total constructed area in this city considering land occupation. The building types were modelled from the designs of typical buildings in Brazil. An analysis of urban development supported the estimation of buildings age and their remaining lifetime while national standards supported the time of replacement of building elements during the use phase. Results show that the stock in 2010 had about 78,828,770t of building material with MI between 2.58 and 0.74 t/m2; concrete and aggregates have the higher MI. The Use phase of the buildings will move about 9,807,690t of materials until 2090. These findings support further environmental impacts assessments and decision-making for planning CDW management and strategies for the efficient use of materials.},
	Author = {Condeixa, Karina and Haddad, Assed and Boer, Dieter},
	Doi = {10.1016/j.jclepro.2017.02.080},
	Issn = {09596526},
	Journal = {Journal of Cleaner Production},
	Keywords = {Bottom-up approach,Building stock,Construction {\&} demolition waste,Material flow analysis,Material intensity},
	Month = {apr},
	Pages = {1249--1267},
	Publisher = {Elsevier Ltd},
	Title = {{Material flow analysis of the residential building stock at the city of Rio de Janeiro}},
	Url = {http://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0959652617302949},
	Volume = {149},
	Year = {2017}}

@article{Symmes,
	Author = {Symmes, Robert and Telesford, John and Fishman, Tomer and Su-yin, Tan and Kroon, Kristen De and Singh, Simron},
	Title = {{GIS-based material stock analysis A case study of buildings in Grenada and material lost due to extreme weather}},
  Year = {in review}}

@article{Cheng2018,
	Abstract = {This study estimates the amount of urban ores in Taipei City between 1965 and 2014 by analyzing data of the buildings through statistics and geographical information systems (GIS). Hot spot analysis (HSA) is introduced to assess the location of resources. Our results show that up to the year 2014, 186 Mton of construction materials were accumulated in Taipei, and the per capita total building material stock was 68 ton. In the short term, the hot spots with development potential are Da'an (Zone I) and Zhongshan (Zone II) Districts in Taipei City. Zone I (0.1 km2) stored 180 kton of materials; while Zone II (0.6 km2) stored 119 kton of materials. This study provides quantitative data on urban ores with high spatial and temporal resolution for enhancing material recycling planning and management. Material stocks could then combine with the material flow to build a dynamic material flow model for assessing the quantity of extractable urban ores, and the feasibility of exploitation in the future.},
	Author = {Cheng, Kuang-Ly and Hsu, Shu-Chien and Li, Wing-Man and Ma, Hwong-Wen},
	Doi = {10.1016/j.resconrec.2018.02.003},
	Issn = {09213449},
	Journal = {Resources, Conservation and Recycling},
	Keywords = {Anthropogenic resources,Construction material stock,Hot spot analysis,Urban mining},
	Month = {jun},
	Number = {February},
	Pages = {10--20},
	Publisher = {Elsevier},
	Title = {{Quantifying potential anthropogenic resources of buildings through hot spot analysis}},
	Url = {http://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0921344918300417},
	Volume = {133},
	Year = {2018}}

@article{Kofoworola2009,
	Abstract = {A typical office building in Thailand was analyzed using the life cycle energy analysis (LCEA) method to illustrate the argument. Results indicate that although life cycle energy (LCE) distribution is concentrated at the operating phase, the embodied energy of buildings is a non-negligible fraction of the LCE balance. Energy (electricity) used for lighting and HVAC systems in the operation phase and; the manufacture of concrete and steel were the most significant elements in the buildings life cycle. Application of a combination of energy saving measures, showed that 40-50{\%} of energy (electricity) used in a typical office building in Thailand can be saved. Preliminary analysis indicated that recycling building materials can also contribute additional energy savings (about 8.9{\%}) to a buildings LCE profile. Therefore reducing energy consumption should be a priority for not only the operation but also other life cycle phases. It is suggested that both embodied and operating energy should be accounted for within the context of energy efficiency through the incorporation of LCEA into the existing Thai building energy code. {\textcopyright} 2009 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.},
	Author = {Kofoworola, Oyeshola F. and Gheewala, Shabbir H.},
	Doi = {10.1016/j.enbuild.2009.06.002},
	Isbn = {0378-7788},
	Issn = {03787788},
	Journal = {Energy and Buildings},
	Keywords = {Embodied energy,Life cycle assessment,Office building,Operating energy,Thailand},
	Month = {oct},
	Number = {10},
	Pages = {1076--1083},
	Pmid = {43527207},
	Title = {{Life cycle energy assessment of a typical office building in Thailand}},
	Url = {http://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0378778809001121},
	Volume = {41},
	Year = {2009}}

@article{Hu2010b,
	Abstract = {The rise of China to become world largest iron and steel producer and consumer since the late 1990s can be largely attributed to urbanization, with about 20{\%} of China's steel output used by residential buildings, and about 50{\%} for the construction sector as a whole. Previously, a dynamic material flow analysis (MFA) model was developed to analyze the dynamics of the rural and the urban housing systems in China. This model is expanded here to specifically analyze iron and steel demand and scrap availability from the housing sector. The evolution of China's housing stock and related steel is simulated from 1900 through 2100. For almost all scenarios, the simulation results indicate a strong drop in steel demand for new housing construction over the next decades, due to the expected lengthening of the - presently extremely short - life span of residential buildings. From an environmental as well as a resource conservation point of view, this is a reassuring conclusion. Calculations for the farther future indicate that the demand for steel will not just decrease but will rather oscillate: the longer the life spans of buildings, the stronger the oscillation. The downside of this development would be the overcapacities in steel production. A scenario with slightly lower life spans but a strong emphasis on secondary steel production might reduce the oscillation at moderate environmental costs. {\textcopyright} 2009 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.},
	Author = {Hu, Mingming and Pauliuk, Stefan and Wang, Tao and Huppes, Gjalt and van der Voet, Ester and M{\"{u}}ller, Daniel B.},
	Doi = {10.1016/j.resconrec.2009.10.016},
	Isbn = {0921-3449},
	Issn = {09213449},
	Journal = {Resources, Conservation and Recycling},
	Keywords = {China,Dynamic material flow analysis,Housing,Industrial ecology,Iron and steel},
	Month = {jul},
	Number = {9},
	Pages = {591--600},
	Title = {{Iron and steel in Chinese residential buildings: A dynamic analysis}},
	Url = {http://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0921344909002407},
	Volume = {54},
	Year = {2010}}

@article{Ortlepp2018,
	Abstract = {ABSTRACTBuilding stocks are the dominant consumers of resources within national economies. Correspondingly, there is high demand for improved knowledge of material stocks and flows in the built environment. Material flow analysis is well suited to meet this demand. Although numerous studies have been conducted on this topic over recent years, these frequently lack applicability and transferability due to insufficient documentation or treatment of uncertainties. A new approach is presented here to calculate material stocks and flows for domestic buildings using the example of multi-family housing (MFH) in Germany. The approach is critically examined to determine its validity. The calculation process involves four steps: (1) building types are classified according to building age; (2) highly specific material composition indicators (MCIs) are calculated for the respective building types; (3) the total material stock as well as inflows and outflows are derived from the total floor space of Germany's MFH; and...},
	Author = {Ortlepp, Regine and Gruhler, Karin and Schiller, Georg},
	Doi = {10.1080/09613218.2016.1264121},
	Isbn = {09613218 (ISSN)},
	Issn = {0961-3218},
	Journal = {Building Research {\&} Information},
	Keywords = {Germany,age,bottom-up,building stock,circular economy,domestic buildings,material composition,material flow,resource efficiency,urban mining},
	Month = {feb},
	Number = {2},
	Pages = {164--178},
	Publisher = {Taylor {\&} Francis},
	Title = {{Materials in Germany's domestic building stock: calculation model and uncertainties}},
	Url = {https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/09613218.2016.1264121},
	Volume = {46},
	Year = {2018}}

@article{Johnstone2001,
	Abstract = {The energy and mass flows required to sustain dwelling services can be established and quantified only within the framework of a stock and flow model of the total housing stock. This paper develops such a model to estimate the energy flows of a typical sub-population of New Zealand housing stock. The energy and mass flows of key building materials are estimated and the energy flows of alternative cladding systems are compared. The stock and flow model is driven by empirical schedules of mortality. A guide to estimating the mortality of housing stock is set out in the companion paper (Johnstone IM. Energy and mass flows of housing: Estimating mortality. Building and Environment 2000;36(1):43-51). (C) 2000 Elsevier Science Ltd. All rights reserved.},
	Author = {Johnstone, Ivan M.},
	Doi = {10.1016/S0360-132r3(99)00065-7},
	Isbn = {0360-1323},
	Issn = {03601323},
	Journal = {Building and Environment},
	Month = {jan},
	Number = {1},
	Pages = {27--41},
	Title = {{Energy and mass flows of housing: a model and example}},
	Url = {http://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0360132399000657},
	Volume = {36},
	Year = {2001}}

@inproceedings{Hong2014,
	Abstract = {China is the world's largest energy consumer and carbon emitter and is facing severe environmental consequences. Most of China's emissions source from an industrial sector dominated by heavy industries, many of which produce various building materials. Chinese buildings total nearly 50 billion square meter in area and a new construction represents half of the world's total each year, with expansion expected to continiye through 2050. Buildings in China currently have a lifetime of only roughly 30 years, with much higher material intensity than their international counterparts. This has significant impact on driving the production of building materials such as concrete and cement, glass, steel, and aluminium, and has important implications for the development of policies such as building codes and lebels. This paper presents a new methodology for projecting the growth in CHina's building floor area to 2050 and the implications of this growth for building materials and total energy demand. We identify key socioeconomic drivers of growth in residential and commercial building floor area. We then use typical material intensities and energy intensities to calculate demand for building materials and related energy demand to produce these building materials. The methodologies developed in this study provide a solid foundation to forecast China's building stock growth in the absence of consistent historical data. Such forecast will help assess future building lifetime and quality, promoting compact urban living to reduce building energy consumption and associated emissions in China.},
	Author = {Hong, Lixuan and Zhou, Nan and Fridley, David and Feng, Wei and Khanna, Nina and Berkeley, Lawrence},
	Booktitle = {ACEEE Summer Study on Energy Efficiency in Buildings},
	Pages = {146--157},
	Title = {{Modeling China's Building Floor-Area Growth and the Implications for Building Materials and Energy Demand}},
	Url = {http://aceee.org/files/proceedings/2014/data/papers/10-230.pdf},
	Year = {2014}}

@article{Ortlepp2015,
	Abstract = {The building sector consumes large quantities of resources and generates high levels of construction and demolition (C{\&}D) waste. From an `urban mining' perspective, the building stock can be seen as a repository of natural resources. In order to manage this repository, evidence is needed on its quantity and dynamics. Although data exist for domestic buildings, little evidence exists for non-domestic buildings. A new method is presented to quantify the material stock of non-domestic buildings -- based on the German building stock. The quantification process involves three steps: (1) material composition indicators (MCIs) are calculated with respect to various building types; (2) the country's total floor space is estimated and disaggregated; and (3) the total material stock is calculated. The main results are MCIs and the floor space for both domestic and non-domestic stocks, as well as the material mass in total. In Germany the total material mass of non-domestic buildings is approximately 6.8 billion tonn...},
	Author = {Ortlepp, Regine and Gruhler, Karin and Schiller, Georg},
	Doi = {10.1080/09613218.2016.1112096},
	Issn = {0961-3218},
	Journal = {Building Research {\&} Information},
	Keywords = {building stock,fixed assets,material composition indicators,material flow,non-domestic buildings,non-residential,resource efficiency,typology,urban mining},
	Month = {nov},
	Number = {8},
	Pages = {840--862},
	Title = {{Material stocks in Germany's non-domestic buildings: a new quantification method}},
	Url = {https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/09613218.2016.1112096},
	Volume = {44},
	Year = {2016}}

@article{Tanikawa2015,
	Author = {Tanikawa, Hiroki and Fishman, Tomer and Okuoka, Keijiro and Sugimoto, Kenji},
	Doi = {10.1111/jiec.12284},
	Issn = {10881980},
	Journal = {Journal of Industrial Ecology},
	Month = {oct},
	Number = {5},
	Pages = {778--791},
	Title = {{The Weight of Society Over Time and Space: A Comprehensive Account of the Construction Material Stock of Japan, 1945-2010}},
	Url = {http://doi.wiley.com/10.1111/jiec.12284},
	Volume = {19},
	Year = {2015}}

@article{Hu2010a,
	Abstract = {Urban residential buildings are formed, maintained and reformed by different external material and energy flows, and their behaviors of input, accumulation and output are characterized by their architectural factors and modes of use that usually determine the consumption of material and energy of a building at its overall life cycle. In this research, we took Beijing city, a rapid developing city as a case study, and examined material flows of urban residential building system based on a survey of typical residential buildings in the urban areas of Beijing city. The quantitative analysis were made to describe the input, transformation/ accumulation, and output of building materials from the year 1949 to 2008, and a comparative analysis was done to identify the differences of material uses among the buildings with different architectural structures as masonry-concrete, and steel-concrete. During the period from 1949 to 2008, there were six main materials of cement, sand, gravel, steel, bricks and timber used in urban residential building system in Beijing. The total amount of material imported into the system was 5.1×108t, among which the accumulated amount was 4.7×108t, an accumulation rate of 92.5{\%}, and the total of building wastes reached 3.9×107t. Among the buildings with two architectural structures, the total amount of material use for buildings with steel-concrete structurewaslarger than masonry-concrete. Itwasfound that the buildings with steel-concrete structure experienced a rapid increase since the year 1979 in Beijing. As a result of rapid urban development, the large-scale reformation and demolishment of urban old buildings also led to a rapid growth of the amount of building wastes. And the building wastes generated in the process of reformation and demolition began to exceed that produced in the process of new buildings construction. The amount of building wastes generated from 2004 to 2008 accounted for 52.2{\%} of the total that generated from 1949 to 2008. From this research, the rapid development of Beijing's residential building system in the past 60 years became a big ecological pressure for urban sustainable building development. It is important to change the traditional model of urban construction, and develop some sustainable or ecologically friendly construction technologies to enhance the capacity of recycling and reuse of residential building wastes for realizing a sustainable urban building construction and management in Beijing. {\textcopyright} 2010 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.},
	Author = {Hu, Dan and You, Fang and Zhao, Yanhua and Yuan, Ye and Liu, Tianxing and Cao, Aixin and Wang, Zhen and Zhang, Junlian},
	Doi = {10.1016/j.resconrec.2010.03.011},
	Isbn = {0921-3449},
	Issn = {09213449},
	Journal = {Resources, Conservation and Recycling},
	Keywords = {Beijing city,Construction wastes,Flows of construction materials,Temporal changes,Urban residential buildings},
	Month = {oct},
	Number = {12},
	Pages = {1177--1188},
	Publisher = {Elsevier B.V.},
	Title = {{Input, stocks and output flows of urban residential building system in Beijing city, China from 1949 to 2008}},
	Url = {http://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0921344910000868},
	Volume = {54},
	Year = {2010}}

@article{Song2018,
	author = {Song, Qingbin and Duan, Huabo and Yu, Danfeng and Li, Jinhui and Wang, Chao and Zuo, Jian},
	doi = {10.1016/j.jclepro.2018.05.148},
	issn = {09596526},
	journal = {Journal of Cleaner Production},
	month = {sep},
	pages = {263--276},
	publisher = {Elsevier Ltd},
	title = {{Characterizing the essential materials and energy performance of city buildings: A case study of Macau}},
	url = {http://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0959652618314884},
	volume = {194},
	year = {2018}}

@inproceedings{zhang2014life,
  title={Life cycle assessment of a single-family residential building in Canada: A case study},
  author={Zhang, Weiqian and Tan, Shen and Lei, Yizhong and Wang, Shoubing},
  booktitle={Building Simulation},
  volume={7},
  number={4},
  pages={429--438},
  year={2014},
  organization={Springer}
}

@article{reza2014emergy,
  title={Emergy-based life cycle assessment (Em-LCA) of multi-unit and single-family residential buildings in Canada},
  author={Reza, Bahareh and Sadiq, Rehan and Hewage, Kasun},
  journal={International Journal of Sustainable Built Environment},
  volume={3},
  number={2},
  pages={207--224},
  year={2014},
  publisher={Elsevier}
}

@article{mosteiro2014relative,
  title={Relative importance of electricity sources and construction practices in residential buildings: A Swiss-US comparison of energy related life-cycle impacts},
  author={Mosteiro-Romero, Mart{\'\i}n and Krogmann, Uta and Wallbaum, Holger and Ostermeyer, York and Senick, Jennifer S and Andrews, Clinton J},
  journal={Energy and Buildings},
  volume={68},
  pages={620--631},
  year={2014},
  publisher={Elsevier}
}

@article{evangelista2018environmental,
  title={Environmental performance analysis of residential buildings in Brazil using life cycle assessment (LCA)},
  author={Evangelista, Patricia PA and Kiperstok, Asher and Torres, Ednildo A and Gon{\c{c}}alves, Jardel P},
  journal={Construction and Building Materials},
  volume={169},
  pages={748--761},
  year={2018},
  publisher={Elsevier}
}

@article{oyarzo2014life,
  title={Life cycle assessment model applied to housing in Chile},
  author={Oyarzo, Juan and Peuportier, Bruno},
  journal={Journal of cleaner production},
  volume={69},
  pages={109--116},
  year={2014},
  publisher={Elsevier}
}

@article{ortiz2010life,
  title={Life cycle assessment of two dwellings: One in Spain, a developed country, and one in Colombia, a country under development},
  author={Ortiz-Rodr{\'\i}guez, Oscar and Castells, Francesc and Sonnemann, Guido},
  journal={Science of the total environment},
  volume={408},
  number={12},
  pages={2435--2443},
  year={2010},
  publisher={Elsevier}
}

@article{henry2014embodied,
  title={Embodied energy and CO2 analyses of mud-brick and cement-block houses},
  author={Henry, Abanda F and Elambo, Nkeng G and Tah, JHM and Fabrice, OE and Blanche, Manjia M},
  journal={AIMS’s Energy},
  volume={2},
  pages={18--40},
  year={2014}
}

@article{ezema2015estimating,
  title={Estimating embodied energy in residential buildings in a Nigerian context},
  author={Ezema, IC and Olotuah, AO and Fagbenle, Olabosipo I},
  journal={International Journal of Applied Engineering Research},
  volume={10},
  number={24},
  pages={44140--44149},
  year={2015},
  publisher={Research India Publication}
}

@article{van2003magnitude,
  title={The magnitude and spatial distribution of in-use copper stocks in Cape Town, South Africa},
  author={Van Beers, D and Graedel, TE},
  journal={South African Journal of Science},
  volume={99},
  number={1-2},
  pages={61--69},
  year={2003},
  publisher={Academy of Science for South Africa (ASSAf)}
}

@article{nemry2008environmental,
  title={Environmental improvement potentials of residential buildings (IMPRO-building)},
  author={Nemry, Fran{\c{c}}oise and Uihlein, Andreas and Colodel, Cecilia Makishi and Wittstock, Bastian and Braune, Anna and Wetzel, Christian and Hasan, Ivana and Niemeier, Sigrid and Frech, Yosrea and Krei{\ss}ig, Johannes and others},
  journal={JRC report (ftp. jrc. es/EURdoc/JRC46667. pdf)},
  year={2008}
}

@article{asif2007life,
  title={Life cycle assessment: A case study of a dwelling home in Scotland},
  author={Asif, M and Muneer, T and Kelley, R},
  journal={Building and environment},
  volume={42},
  number={3},
  pages={1391--1394},
  year={2007},
  publisher={Elsevier}
}

@phdthesis{stephan2013towards,
  title={Towards a comprehensive energy assessment of residential buildings: a multi-scale life cycle energy analysis framework},
  author={Stephan, Andr{\'e}},
  year={2013}
}

@article{cuellar2012environmental,
  title={Environmental impacts of the UK residential sector: Life cycle assessment of houses},
  author={Cu{\'e}llar-Franca, Rosa M and Azapagic, Adisa},
  journal={Building and Environment},
  volume={54},
  pages={86--99},
  year={2012},
  publisher={Elsevier}
}

@article{miatto2019spatial,
  title={A spatial analysis of material stock accumulation and demolition waste potential of buildings: A case study of Padua},
  author={Miatto, Alessio and Schandl, Heinz and Forlin, Luigi and Ronzani, Fabio and Borin, Paolo and Giordano, Andrea and Tanikawa, Hiroki},
  journal={Resources, Conservation and Recycling},
  volume={142},
  pages={245--256},
  year={2019},
  publisher={Elsevier}
}

@article{pajchrowski2014wood,
  title={Wood as a building material in the light of environmental assessment of full life cycle of four buildings},
  author={Pajchrowski, Grzegorz and Noskowiak, Andrzej and Lewandowska, Anna and Strykowski, Wladys{\l}aw},
  journal={Construction and Building Materials},
  volume={52},
  pages={428--436},
  year={2014},
  publisher={Elsevier}
}

@article{stephan2014reducing,
  title={Reducing the total life cycle energy demand of recent residential buildings in Lebanon},
  author={Stephan, Andr{\'e} and Stephan, Laurent},
  journal={Energy},
  volume={74},
  pages={618--637},
  year={2014},
  publisher={Elsevier}
}

@article{asif2017life,
  title={Life cycle assessment of a three-bedroom house in Saudi Arabia},
  author={Asif, Muhammad and Dehwah, Ammar Hamoud Ahmad and Ashraf, Farhan and Khan, Hassan Saeed and Shaukat, Mian Mobeen and Hassan, Muhammad Tahir},
  journal={Environments},
  volume={4},
  number={3},
  pages={52},
  year={2017},
  publisher={Multidisciplinary Digital Publishing Institute}
}

@article{el2015environmental,
  title={Environmental assessment of popular single-family house construction alternatives in Jordan},
  author={El Hanandeh, Ali},
  journal={Building and Environment},
  volume={92},
  pages={192--199},
  year={2015},
  publisher={Elsevier}
}

@article{devi2014case,
  title={A case study on life cycle energy use of residential building in Southern India},
  author={Devi, Pinky and Palaniappan, Sivakumar},
  journal={Energy and Buildings},
  volume={80},
  pages={247--259},
  year={2014},
  publisher={Elsevier}
}

@article{bansal2014effect,
  title={Effect of construction materials on embodied energy and cost of buildings—A case study of residential houses in India up to 60 m2 of plinth area},
  author={Bansal, Deepak and Singh, Ramkishore and Sawhney, RL},
  journal={Energy and Buildings},
  volume={69},
  pages={260--266},
  year={2014},
  publisher={Elsevier}
}

@article{sharma2017methodology,
  title={A methodology for energy performance classification of residential building stock of Hamirpur},
  author={Sharma, Aniket and Marwaha, Bhanu M},
  journal={HBRC journal},
  volume={13},
  number={3},
  pages={337--352},
  year={2017},
  publisher={Elsevier}
}

@article{ramesh2012life,
  title={Life cycle energy analysis of a residential building with different envelopes and climates in Indian context},
  author={Ramesh, T and Prakash, Ravi and Shukla, KK},
  journal={Applied Energy},
  volume={89},
  number={1},
  pages={193--202},
  year={2012},
  publisher={Elsevier}
}


@article{shukla_embodied_2009,
	title = {Embodied energy analysis of adobe house},
	volume = {34},
	issn = {0960-1481},
	url = {http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0960148108001729},
	doi = {10.1016/j.renene.2008.04.002},
	abstract = {In this paper an attempt has been made to develop a simple methodology to calculate embodied energy of the adobe house at Solar Energy Park, Indian Institute of Technology Delhi, New Delhi (28°35′N, 77°12′E) and its effect on the environment. The special feature of the adobe house is that, the whole house is constructed by using low energy intensive materials like soil, sand cow dung, etc. The embodied energy involved in construction of main structure, foundation, flooring, finishes, furniture, maintenance and electric work are 102GJ, 214GJ, 55GJ, 5GJ, 18GJ, 59GJ and 4GJ, respectively. It is seen that the embodied energy involved in the maintenance of the adobe house (12\% of total embodied energy) is significant. It has been found that approximately 370GJ energy can be saved per year. The energy pay back time (EPBT) for the adobe house is 1.54 years. By using low energy intensive materials the mitigation of CO2 in the environment is reduced by an amount 101tonnes/year. The adobe house is more environmentally friendly house in comparison to conventional buildings.},
	language = {en},
	number = {3},
	urldate = {2020-08-04},
	journal = {Renewable Energy},
	author = {Shukla, Ashish and Tiwari, G. N. and Sodha, M. S.},
	month = mar,
	year = {2009},
	keywords = {Adobe house, Embodied energy, Energy pay back time},
	pages = {755--761}
}


@article{lee_integrated_2017,
	title = {Integrated building life-cycle assessment model to support {South} {Korea}'s green building certification system ({G}-{SEED})},
	volume = {76},
	issn = {1364-0321},
	url = {http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1364032117303581},
	doi = {10.1016/j.rser.2017.03.038},
	abstract = {In the construction industry, concerted efforts are being made to quantitatively evaluate the environmental impacts of building materials and buildings using the life cycle assessment (LCA) approach. However, the existing building LCA model applies different evaluation systems and standards to building materials and buildings; thus, interlinking and integrating their evaluated values are made difficult. To overcome this problem, this study aims to develop an integrated building LCA model that enables the integration of all LCA results related to building materials used for constructing a building, the building components, and the whole building. First, the building LCA methods and certification criteria employed by major green building certification systems [Leadership in Energy \& Environmental Design (LEED), Comprehensive Assessment System for Built Environment Efficiency (CASBEE), Building Research Establishment Environmental Assessment Methodology (BREEAM), and Green Standard for Energy and Environmental Design (G-SEED)] were analyzed. Then, an integrated building LCA model that allows integration of the LCA results for building materials into those of the LCA of building components and the whole building was developed. Finally, we established an application plan for a stepwise application of the integrated building LCA model to G-SEED, a Korean green building certification system. The feasibility of the integrated building LCA model was confirmed by comparing it with the existing building LCA model in a case analysis, which demonstrated the applicability of the proposed integrated building LCA method in terms of building materials, building components, and whole building.},
	language = {en},
	urldate = {2020-08-04},
	journal = {Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews},
	author = {Lee, Nayoon and Tae, Sungho and Gong, Yuri and Roh, Seungjun},
	month = sep,
	year = {2017},
	keywords = {Building, G-SEED, Green building certification system, Integrated model, Life cycle assessment},
	pages = {43--50}
}

@article{jeong_estimation_2012,
	title = {Estimation of {CO2} emission of apartment buildings due to major construction materials in the {Republic} of {Korea}},
	volume = {49},
	issn = {0378-7788},
	url = {http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0378778812001338},
	doi = {10.1016/j.enbuild.2012.02.041},
	abstract = {Buildings emit much greenhouse gases as large amounts of resources and energy are consumed during their life cycle. CO2 emissions from residential buildings in the Republic of Korea (“Korea” hereinafter) are expected to consistently increase. According to the statistical data, apartment buildings occupy a high portion (86.4\%) of residential buildings, and it is expected to maintain a certain level every year due to residential building construction policy of the Korean government. So, apartment buildings are a very important subject of study. This study aims to quantify CO2 emissions emitted by six different size apartment units due to major construction materials consumed in construction. The result shows that CO2 emission of the various construction materials of an apartment unit was estimated to be 569.5kg-CO2/m2 on average. The apartment with the area of 84.9m2 for a common apartment type in Korea has about 11.8 TOE embodied energy and 45.1ton-CO2 emission. The CO2 emissions from steel and concrete were 424.2–584.2kg-CO2/m2 for apartment units, occupying more than 82\% of the total CO2 emissions. The results are valuable for the sustainable design of apartment complexes and are used as technical measures for the CO2 reduction strategy of the building sector.},
	language = {en},
	urldate = {2020-08-04},
	journal = {Energy and Buildings},
	author = {Jeong, Young-Sun and Lee, Seung-Eon and Huh, Jung-Ho},
	month = jun,
	year = {2012},
	keywords = {Apartment building, CO emission, Construction material, Embodied energy},
	pages = {437--442}
}

@article{lee_green_2015,
	title = {Green {Template} for {Life} {Cycle} {Assessment} of {Buildings} {Based} on {Building} {Information} {Modeling}: {Focus} on {Embodied} {Environmental} {Impact}},
	volume = {7},
	copyright = {http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0/},
	shorttitle = {Green {Template} for {Life} {Cycle} {Assessment} of {Buildings} {Based} on {Building} {Information} {Modeling}},
	url = {https://www.mdpi.com/2071-1050/7/12/15830},
	doi = {10.3390/su71215830},
	abstract = {The increased popularity of building information modeling (BIM) for application in the construction of eco-friendly green buildings has given rise to techniques for evaluating green buildings constructed using BIM features. Existing BIM-based green building evaluation techniques mostly rely on externally provided evaluation tools, which pose problems associated with interoperability, including a lack of data compatibility and the amount of time required for format conversion. To overcome these problems, this study sets out to develop a template (the “green template”) for evaluating the embodied environmental impact of using a BIM design tool as part of BIM-based building life-cycle assessment (LCA) technology development. Firstly, the BIM level of detail (LOD) was determined to evaluate the embodied environmental impact, and constructed a database of the impact factors of the embodied environmental impact of the major building materials, thereby adopting an LCA-based approach. The libraries of major building elements were developed by using the established databases and compiled evaluation table of the embodied environmental impact of the building materials. Finally, the green template was developed as an embodied environmental impact evaluation tool and a case study was performed to test its applicability. The results of the green template-based embodied environmental impact evaluation of a test building were validated against those of its actual quantity takeoff (2D takeoff), and its reliability was confirmed by an effective error rate of ≤5\%. This study aims to develop a system for assessing the impact of the substances discharged from concrete production process on six environmental impact categories, i.e., global warming (GWP), acidification (AP), eutrophication (EP), abiotic depletion (ADP), ozone depletion (ODP), and photochemical oxidant creation (POCP), using the life a cycle assessment (LCA) method. To achieve this, we proposed an LCA method specifically applicable to concrete and tailored to the Korean concrete industry by adapting the ISO standards to suit the Korean situations.},
	language = {en},
	number = {12},
	urldate = {2020-08-04},
	journal = {Sustainability},
	author = {Lee, Sungwoo and Tae, Sungho and Roh, Seungjun and Kim, Taehyung},
	month = dec,
	year = {2015},
	note = {Number: 12
Publisher: Multidisciplinary Digital Publishing Institute},
	keywords = {building, building information modeling (BIM), embodied environmental impact, green template, life cycle assessment},
	pages = {16498--16512}
}

@article{li_development_2016,
	title = {Development of an automated estimator of life-cycle carbon emissions for residential buildings: {A} case study in {Nanjing}, {China}},
	volume = {57},
	issn = {0197-3975},
	shorttitle = {Development of an automated estimator of life-cycle carbon emissions for residential buildings},
	url = {http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0197397515303441},
	doi = {10.1016/j.habitatint.2016.07.003},
	abstract = {Residential buildings consume a significant portion of energy and resources during the whole life-cycle phase and meanwhile discharge an enormous amount of carbon dioxide emissions, which has directly led to the aggravation of the greenhouse effect and become a great threat to the environment and human beings. To reduce the life-cycle carbon emissions from residential buildings, researchers have made many efforts to estimate the emissions accurately. Although several building-level carbon emission databases and related calculation systems have been set up in developed countries, there unluckily remains a vacancy in China. To fill in this gap, this study develops an automated estimator of life-cycle carbon emission for residential buildings entitled “Carbon Emission Estimator for Residential Buildings (CEERB)” in China. The development process was based on the life-cycle assessment (LCA) theory, standardized carbon emission calculation method, and collection and compilation of numerous carbon emission coefficients available in China. The database for storing carbon emission coefficients is based on the SQLite 3.0, and the user interface is designed with Qt 4.7. Followed by the establishment of the CEERB system, it has been exemplified in a masonry concrete residential building in Nanjing (China), demonstrating its applicability and capability in estimating the life-cycle carbon emissions of residential buildings. The results indicate that: (1) the life-cycle carbon emissions of this project were 1.7 million kg and the annual emissions per square meters were 19 kg/m2/year; (2) the O\&M phase contributed the most (63\%) to carbon emissions, followed by the material production (32\%); (3) regarding to material embodied emissions, concrete reached roughly 44\% of total material emissions, followed by the steel (20\%); (4) during the construction phase, the superstructure project accounted for the most emissions (78\%), primarily by tower cranes and hoist; (5) during the operation phase, electricity contributes 88.3\% of emissions, followed by natural gas of 8\%. Discussion and implicated policies, such as annual emission profile and impact of using recycled materials, have also been elaborated at the end of the study. Based on the proposed estimator CEERB, contractors can be more efficient and convenient to evaluate carbon emissions at the early stage of a project and make appropriate carbon management plans to reduce emissions when facing stricter environment policies in the future.},
	language = {en},
	urldate = {2020-08-04},
	journal = {Habitat International},
	author = {Li, Dezhi and Cui, Peng and Lu, Yujie},
	month = oct,
	year = {2016},
	keywords = {Carbon emission, Case study, China, Integrated estimator, Life-cycle analysis, Residential building},
	pages = {154--163}
}

@article{yang_building-information-modeling_2018,
	title = {Building-information-modeling enabled life cycle assessment, a case study on carbon footprint accounting for a residential building in {China}},
	volume = {183},
	issn = {0959-6526},
	url = {http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0959652618303767},
	doi = {10.1016/j.jclepro.2018.02.070},
	abstract = {Building Information Modeling (BIM) is regarded as a potential vehicle to tremendously improve the information flow throughout the life cycle of a building. The integration of BIM and Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) has potential to reduce the time for life cycle inventory, and at the same time, substantially improve the representativeness of the LCA results for the specific building design. The latter merit is not trivial. For instance, due to time limit, most building LCA studies estimate the building materials and fuels consumed in construction phase quite roughly, which excludes the choices on a wide range of construction techniques, materials, specialties and machines, no need to mention the energy consumption in operation phase, which is usually estimated in an even bolder manner. The roughness of the LCA practice undermines its credibility and hinders its application as a decision supporting tool for low carbon design. Currently, China's Architecture, Engineering and Construction (AEC) sector is undergoing a smart transformation, steered by the increased use of BIM. This paper presents a BIM-enabled LCA method and illustrates how the method can be used to facilitate the low carbon design under the circumstance of the smart AEC transition in China. A case study on carbon footprint accounting for a residential building is conducted. In this study, various software tools and data sources are combined to enhance the data flow and interoperability between BIM models and LCA models. BIM tools are used to create the BIM model, calculate the inputs (materials, construction machines, energies, water and so on) of on-site construction process and simulate the energy consumption of building operation. The eBalance, a China's local LCA software tool is applied to build the LCA model. The Chinese Life Cycle Database is used as the main data source (72.73\%) to calculate the carbon footprint of the given building while the Ecoinvent database and European Life Cycle Database act as supplementary. The results show that the carbon footprint of the building is 2993 kg CO2eq/m2. The operation phase contributes to 69\% of the total greenhouse gas (GHG) emission, while the building material production contributes to 24\%. Concrete is the most used building material, which accounts for 82\% of mass but contributes to only 44\% of the material related GHG emission. Although steel and aluminum account for only 2.6\% and 1.4\% of mass, they contribute to 28\% and 17\% GHG emission, respectively. Through BIM-enable LCA modeling, the potential life cycle environmental performance of the buildings can be assessed in detail. This makes the LCA not only more accessible but also more credible for the AEC professionals to use it as a guide for the low carbon design of buildings.},
	language = {en},
	urldate = {2020-08-04},
	journal = {Journal of Cleaner Production},
	author = {Yang, Xining and Hu, Mingming and Wu, Jiangbo and Zhao, Bin},
	month = may,
	year = {2018},
	keywords = {Building information modeling, Carbon footprint, Life cycle assessment, Low carbon design},
	pages = {729--743}
}

@article{jia_wen_assessment_2015,
	title = {Assessment of embodied energy and global warming potential of building construction using life cycle analysis approach: {Case} studies of residential buildings in {Iskandar} {Malaysia}},
	volume = {93},
	issn = {0378-7788},
	shorttitle = {Assessment of embodied energy and global warming potential of building construction using life cycle analysis approach},
	url = {http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0378778814010512},
	doi = {10.1016/j.enbuild.2014.12.002},
	abstract = {Rapid urbanization has greatly impacted housing demand and housing development in Iskandar Malaysia, Johor. Iskandar Malaysia vision towards development of a low carbon society and in line with Malaysian government policy promoting industrialized building system (IBS) to meet the increasing housing demand. Hence, a comparative analysis of life cycle analysis (LCA) at assembly phase has been conducted to identify life cycle impact assessment and hotspot for material and construction stage between IBS and conventional cast in situ for residential apartment buildings in Iskandar Malaysia. The purpose is to apply IBS in residential building construction towards greener building and sustainable development. The functional unit of the comparison analyses was one square metre of produced building area for the respective construction period. A comparable inventory analysis will be carried out between two case studies. An input-output flowchart is created for each process to determine the components included in the analysis. Flows of assembly phase will be modelled in Gabi 6.0 software to further interpret the life cycle impact assessment (LCIA) between the two construction methods, and to determine the hotspot between the processes. Finally, a sensitivity analysis will be conducted to determine the influence of variations in assumptions, methods and data on the results.},
	language = {en},
	urldate = {2020-08-04},
	journal = {Energy and Buildings},
	author = {Jia Wen, Thong and Chin Siong, Ho and Noor, Z. Z.},
	month = apr,
	year = {2015},
	keywords = {Assembly phase, Industrialized building system (IBS), Life cycle assessment (LCA), Life cycle impact assessment (LCIA), Sensitivity analysis},
	pages = {295--302}
}

@article{abd_rashid_environmental_2017,
	title = {Environmental {Impact} {Analysis} on {Residential} {Building} in {Malaysia} {Using} {Life} {Cycle} {Assessment}},
	volume = {9},
	copyright = {http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0/},
	url = {https://www.mdpi.com/2071-1050/9/3/329},
	doi = {10.3390/su9030329},
	abstract = {The building industry has a significant impact on the environment due to massive natural resources and energy it uses throughout its life cycle. This study presents a life cycle assessment of a semi-detached residential building in Malaysia as a case study and assesses the environmental impact under cradle-to-grave which consists of pre-use, construction, use, and end-of-life phases by using Centre of Environmental Science of Leiden University (CML) 2001. Four impact categories were evaluated, namely, acidification, eutrophication, global warming potential (GWP), and ozone layer depletion (ODP). The building operation under use phase contributed the highest global warming potential and acidification with 2.41 × 103 kg CO2 eq and 1.10 × 101 kg SO2 eq, respectively. In the pre-use phase, concrete in the substructure has the most significant overall impact with cement as the primary raw material. The results showed that the residential building in Malaysia has a fairly high impact in GWP but lower in acidification and ODP compared to other studies.},
	language = {en},
	number = {3},
	urldate = {2020-08-04},
	journal = {Sustainability},
	author = {Abd Rashid, Ahmad Faiz and Idris, Juferi and Yusoff, Sumiani},
	month = mar,
	year = {2017},
	note = {Number: 3
Publisher: Multidisciplinary Digital Publishing Institute},
	keywords = {life cycle assessment, Malaysia, residential building},
	pages = {329}
}

@article{utama_indonesian_2009,
	title = {Indonesian residential high rise buildings: {A} life cycle energy assessment},
	volume = {41},
	issn = {0378-7788},
	shorttitle = {Indonesian residential high rise buildings},
	url = {http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0378778809001649},
	doi = {10.1016/j.enbuild.2009.07.025},
	abstract = {This study evaluates the effect of building envelopes on the life cycle energy consumption of high rise residential buildings in Jakarta, Indonesia. For high rise residential buildings, the enclosures contribute 10–50\% of the total building cost, 14–17\% of the total material mass and 20–30\% of the total heat gain. The direct as well as indirect influence of the envelope materials plays an important role in the life cycle energy consumption of buildings. The initial embodied energy of typical double wall and single wall envelopes for high residential buildings is 79.5GJ and 76.3GJ, respectively. Over an assumed life span of 40 years, double walls have better energy performance than single walls, 283GJ versus 480GJ, respectively. Material selection, which depends not only on embodied energy but also thermal properties, should, therefore, play a crucial role during the design of buildings.},
	language = {en},
	number = {11},
	urldate = {2020-08-04},
	journal = {Energy and Buildings},
	author = {Utama, Agya and Gheewala, Shabbir H.},
	month = nov,
	year = {2009},
	keywords = {Building envelopes, Embodied energy, High rise, Life cycle energy, Tropical climate},
	pages = {1263--1268}
}

@article{utama_life_2008,
	title = {Life cycle energy of single landed houses in {Indonesia}},
	volume = {40},
	issn = {0378-7788},
	url = {http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0378778808000959},
	doi = {10.1016/j.enbuild.2008.04.017},
	abstract = {Building enclosures contribute 10–50\% of the total building cost and 14–17\% of the total material mass. The direct as well as indirect influence of the enclosure materials plays an important role in the building life cycle energy. Single landed houses, the typical houses in Indonesia, have been chosen for this study. The life cycle energy of the house enclosures and energy consumed during their life spans shows intriguing results. The initial embodied energy of typical brick and clay roof enclosures is 45GJ compared to the other typical walls and roof material (cement based) which is 46GJ. However, over the 40 years life span of the houses, the clay based ones have a better energy performance than the cement based ones, 692GJ versus 733GJ, respectively. The material selection during the design phase is thus crucial since the buildings have at least 40–50 years’ life span.},
	language = {en},
	number = {10},
	urldate = {2020-08-04},
	journal = {Energy and Buildings},
	author = {Utama, Agya and Gheewala, Shabbir H.},
	month = jan,
	year = {2008},
	keywords = {Building envelope, Embodied energy, Houses, Indonesia, Life cycle energy},
	pages = {1911--1916}
}

@article{suzuki_estimation_1995,
	title = {The estimation of energy consumption and {CO2} emission due to housing construction in {Japan}},
	volume = {22},
	issn = {0378-7788},
	url = {http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/037877889500914J},
	doi = {10.1016/0378-7788(95)00914-J},
	abstract = {Basic sector classification Input/Output Tables of Japan (Research Committee of International Trade and Industry, Tokyo, Japan, 1988) were applied to quantify the total energy consumption and CO2 emission including direct and indirect effects due to the construction of various types of houses. As a result, energy consumption for construction is calculated as 8–10 GJ per square meter of floor area for multi-family SRC (steel reinforced concrete) houses, 3 GJ for wooden single-family houses, 4.5 GJ for lightweight steel structure single-family houses. CO2 emission resulting from construction is 850, 250 and 400 kg/m2, respectively.},
	language = {en},
	number = {2},
	urldate = {2020-08-04},
	journal = {Energy and Buildings},
	author = {Suzuki, Michiya and Oka, Tatsuo and Okada, Kiyoshi},
	month = jan,
	year = {1995},
	keywords = {Carbon dioxide emission, Energy consumption, Japan, Residential buildings},
	pages = {165--169}
}

@article{stephan_towards_2018,
	title = {Towards a more circular construction sector: {Estimating} and spatialising current and future non-structural material replacement flows to maintain urban building stocks},
	volume = {129},
	issn = {0921-3449},
	shorttitle = {Towards a more circular construction sector},
	url = {http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0921344917303002},
	doi = {10.1016/j.resconrec.2017.09.022},
	abstract = {Humans are extracting and consuming unprecedented quantities of materials from the earth’s crust. The construction sector and the built environment are major drivers of this consumption which is concentrated in cities. This paper proposes a framework to quantify, spatialise and estimate future material replacement flows to maintain urban building stocks. It uses a dynamic, stock-driven, and bottom-up model applied to the City of Melbourne, Australia to evaluate the status of its current material stock as well as estimated replacements of non-structural materials from 2018 to 2030. The model offers a high level of detail and characterises individual materials within construction assemblies for each of the 13 075 buildings modelled. Results show that plasterboard (7 175t), carpet (7 116t), timber (6 097 t) and ceramics (3 500 t) have the highest average annual replacement rate over the studied time period. Overall, replacing non-structural materials resulted in a significant flow of 26 kt/annum, 36kg/(capita·annum) or 721t/(km2·annum). These figures were found to be compatible with official waste statistics. Results include maps depicting which material quantities are estimated to be replaced in each building, as well as an age pyramid of materials, representing the accumulation of materials in the stock, according to their service lives. The proposed model can inform decision-making for a more circular construction sector.},
	language = {en},
	urldate = {2020-08-04},
	journal = {Resources, Conservation and Recycling},
	author = {Stephan, André and Athanassiadis, Aristide},
	month = feb,
	year = {2018},
	keywords = {Life cycle assessment, Maintenance, Material flow analysis, Melbourne, Urban metabolism, Urban mining},
	pages = {248--262}
}

@article{rauf_building_2015,
	title = {Building service life and its effect on the life cycle embodied energy of buildings},
	volume = {79},
	issn = {0360-5442},
	url = {http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0360544214012547},
	doi = {10.1016/j.energy.2014.10.093},
	abstract = {The building sector is responsible for significant energy demands. An understanding of where this occurs across the building life cycle is critical for optimal targeting of energy reduction efforts. The energy embodied in a building can be significant, yet is not well understood, especially the on-going ‘recurrent’ embodied energy associated with material replacement and building refurbishment. A key factor affecting this ‘recurrent’ embodied energy is a building's service life. The aim of this study was to investigate the relationship between the service life and the life cycle embodied energy of buildings. The embodied energy of a detached residential building was calculated for a building service life range of 1–150 years. The results show that variations in building service life can have a considerable effect on the life cycle embodied energy demand of a building. A 29\% reduction in life cycle embodied energy was found for the case study building by extending its life from 50 to 150 years. This indicates the importance of including recurrent embodied energy in building life cycle energy analyses as well as integrating building service life considerations when designing and managing buildings for improved energy performance.},
	language = {en},
	urldate = {2020-08-04},
	journal = {Energy},
	author = {Rauf, Abdul and Crawford, Robert H.},
	month = jan,
	year = {2015},
	keywords = {Building service life, Life cycle embodied energy, Life cycle energy analysis, Recurrent embodied energy},
	pages = {140--148}
}

@article{aye_life_2012,
	title = {Life cycle greenhouse gas emissions and energy analysis of prefabricated reusable building modules},
	volume = {47},
	issn = {0378-7788},
	url = {http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0378778811005950},
	doi = {10.1016/j.enbuild.2011.11.049},
	abstract = {Prefabrication is one strategy considered to provide improved environmental performance for building construction. However, there is an absence of detailed scientific research or case studies dealing with the potential environmental benefits of prefabrication, particularly the embodied energy savings resulting from waste reduction and the improved efficiency of material usage. This paper aims to quantify the embodied energy of modular prefabricated steel and timber multi-residential buildings in order to determine whether this form of construction provides improved environmental performance over conventional concrete construction methods. Furthermore this paper assesses the potential benefits of reusability of materials, reducing the space required for landfill and need for additional resource requirements. An eight-storey, 3943m2 multi-residential building was investigated. It was found that a steel-structured prefabricated system resulted in reduced material consumption of up to 78\% by mass compared to conventional concrete construction. However, the prefabricated steel building resulted in a significant increase (∼50\%) in embodied energy compared to the concrete building. It was shown that there was significant potential for the reuse of materials in the prefabricated steel building, representing up to an 81\% saving in embodied energy and 51\% materials saving by mass. This form of construction has the potential to contribute significantly towards improved environmental sustainability in the construction industry.},
	language = {en},
	urldate = {2020-08-04},
	journal = {Energy and Buildings},
	author = {Aye, Lu and Ngo, T. and Crawford, R. H. and Gammampila, R. and Mendis, P.},
	month = apr,
	year = {2012},
	keywords = {Embodied energy, Life cycle energy, Prefabrication, Waste minimisation},
	pages = {159--168}
}

@article{fay_life-cycle_2000,
	title = {Life-cycle energy analysis of buildings: a case study},
	volume = {28},
	issn = {0961-3218},
	shorttitle = {Life-cycle energy analysis of buildings},
	url = {https://doi.org/10.1080/096132100369073},
	doi = {10.1080/096132100369073},
	abstract = {Energy use is a widely used measure of the environmental impact of buildings. Recent studies have highlighted the importance of both the operational and embodied energy attributable to buildings over their lifetime. The method of assessing lifetime building energy is known as life-cycle energy analysis. With Kyoto target obligations necessitating the quantification of greenhouse gas emissions at the national level, it seems increasingly probable that analyses of this kind will increase in use. If conducted in primary energy terms, such analyses directly reflect greenhouse gas emissions, except for a few processes which involve significant non-energy related emissions such as cement manufacture. A Life-Cycle Assessment would include these issues, as well as other environmental parameters, though probably with a corresponding decrease in system boundary completeness. This paper briefly explains some of the theoretical issues associated with life-cycle energy analysis and then uses an Australian based case study to demonstrate its use in evaluating alternative design strategies for an energy efficient residential building. For example, it was found that the addition of higher levels of insulation in Australia paid back its initial embodied energy in life-cycle energy terms in around 12 years. However, the saving represented less than 6\% of the total embodied energy and operational energy of the building over a 100-year life cycle. This indicates that there may be other strategies worth pursuing before additional insulation. Energy efficiency and other environmental strategies should be prioritized on a life-cycle basis. La consommation d'énergie est un paramètre très utilisé lorsque l'on veut mesurer l'impact des bâtiments sur l'environnement. Des études conduites récemment ont mis en lumière l'importance de l'énergie opérationnelle et celle de l'énergie intrinsèque dégagées par les bâtiments pendant leur durée de vie. L'analyse énergétique des bâtiments pendant leur cycle de vie est une méthode d'évaluation de l'énergie d'un bâtiment pendant sa durée de vie. Pour respecter les objectifs de la Conférence de Kyoto, il faut quantifier les émissions de gaz de serre au niveau national; il semble donc de plus en plus probable que la pratique de ces analyses va aller en augmentant. Si elles portent sur l'énergie primaire, ces analyses rendront parfaitement compte des émissions de gaz à effets de serre, sauf pour quelques procédés industriels, comme la fabrication du ciment, où les émissions de ces gaz ne sont pas liées à l'énergie. Toute évaluation du cycle de vie doit tenir compte de ces questions mais aussi d'autres paramètres environnementaux, mais avec, sans doute, une moindre netteté des limites des systèmes. Le présente communication expose brièvement quelques uns des problèmes théoriques liés aux analyses ènergétiques sur le cycle de vie et s'appuie sur une étude de cas australienne pour démontrer son utilitè à évaluer d'autres stratégies de conception de bâtiments à usage d'habitation à faible consommation d'énergie. On a constaté, par exemple, qu'en Australie le fait d'ajouter des niveaux d'isolation remboursait en 12 ans environ l'énergie intrinsèque initiale en terme d'énergie sur le cycle de vie. Toutefois, les economies répresentaient moins de 6\% de l'énergie intrinsèque totale et de l'energie opérationnelle du bâtiment sur un cycle de vie de 100 ans. Cela veut dire qu'il serait peut etre intéressant d'envisager d'autres stratégies avant d'augmenter l'isolation. On devrait donner priorité à l'efficacité énergétique et à d'autres stratégies environnementales sur la base du cycle de vie.},
	number = {1},
	urldate = {2020-08-04},
	journal = {Building Research \& Information},
	author = {Fay, Roger and Treloar, Graham and Iyer-Raniga, Usha},
	month = jan,
	year = {2000},
	note = {Publisher: Routledge
\_eprint: https://doi.org/10.1080/096132100369073},
	keywords = {Australia, Embodied Energy, Energy Analysis, Life-cycle, Residential Buildings},
	pages = {31--41}
}

@article{bhochhibhoya_global_2017,
	title = {The {Global} {Warming} {Potential} of {Building} {Materials}: {An} {Application} of {Life} {Cycle} {Analysis} in {Nepal}},
	volume = {37},
	issn = {0276-4741, 1994-7151},
	shorttitle = {The {Global} {Warming} {Potential} of {Building} {Materials}},
	url = {https://bioone.org/journals/Mountain-Research-and-Development/volume-37/issue-1/MRD-JOURNAL-D-15-00043.1/The-Global-Warming-Potential-of-Building-Materials--An-Application/10.1659/MRD-JOURNAL-D-15-00043.1.full},
	doi = {10.1659/MRD-JOURNAL-D-15-00043.1},
	abstract = {This paper analyzes the global-warming potential of materials used to construct the walls of 3 building types—traditional, semimodern, and modern—in Sagarmatha National Park and Buffer Zone in Nepal, using the life-cycle assessment approach. Traditional buildings use local materials, mainly wood and stone, while semimodern and modern buildings use different amounts of commercial materials, such as cement and glass wool. A comparison of the greenhouse gas emissions associated with the 3 building types, using as the functional unit 1 m2 of wall, found that traditional buildings release about one-fourth of the greenhouse gas emissions released by semimodern buildings and less than one-fifth of the emissions of modern buildings. However, the use of thermal insulation in the modern building walls helps to reduce the energy consumption for space heating and consequently to reduce the global warming potential. In 25 years, the total global warming potential of a traditional building will be 20\% higher than that of a modern building. If local materials, such as wood, are used in building construction, the emissions from production and transportation could be dramatically reduced.},
	number = {1},
	urldate = {2020-08-04},
	journal = {Mountain Research and Development},
	author = {Bhochhibhoya, Silu and Zanetti, Michela and Pierobon, Francesca and Gatto, Paola and Maskey, Ramesh Kumar and Cavalli, Raffaele},
	month = feb,
	year = {2017},
	note = {Publisher: International Mountain Society},
	pages = {47--55}
}

@article{marinova_global_2020,
	title = {Global construction materials database and stock analysis of residential buildings between 1970-2050},
	volume = {247},
	issn = {0959-6526},
	url = {http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0959652619340168},
	doi = {10.1016/j.jclepro.2019.119146},
	abstract = {Huge material stocks are embedded in the residential built environment. These materials have the potential to be a source of secondary materials, an important consideration for the transition towards a circular economy. Consistent information about such stocks, especially at the global level, is missing. This article attempts to fill part of that gap by compiling a material intensities database for different types of buildings and applying that data in the context of a scenario analysis, linked to the SSP scenarios as implemented in the global climate model IMAGE. The database is created on a global scale, dividing the world into 26 regions in compliance with IMAGE. The potential use of the database was tested and served as input for modelling the housing and material stock of residential buildings for the period 1970–2050, according to specifications made for the SSP2 scenario. Six construction materials in four different dwelling types in urban and rural areas are included. The material flows related to those stocks are estimated and analysed in a companion paper (also exploring commercial buildings) by Deetman et al. (2019). The results suggest a significant increase in the material stock in housing towards 2050, particularly in urban areas. The results reflect specific patterns in the material contents across the different building types. China presently dominates developments in the global level building stock. The SSP2 projections show a stock saturation towards 2050 for China. In other regions, such as India and South East Asia, stock growth is presently just taking off and can be expected to become dominant for global developments after 2050. The database is created to be used as input for resource and climate policymaking as well as assessment of environmental impact related to residential buildings and assessment of possibilities for urban mining. In the future, we hope to extend it as new data on materials in the built environment become available.},
	language = {en},
	urldate = {2020-08-04},
	journal = {Journal of Cleaner Production},
	author = {Marinova, Sylvia and Deetman, Sebastiaan and van der Voet, Ester and Daioglou, Vassilis},
	month = feb,
	year = {2020},
	keywords = {Construction materials stock, Floor space, Material intensity, Residential buildings, Scenario assessment, Urban mining},
	pages = {119146}
}