learning.py

"""Learn to estimate functions from examples. (Chapters 18-20)"""

from utils import *  # noqa

import copy
import heapq
import math
import random
from collections import defaultdict

# ______________________________________________________________________________


def rms_error(predictions, targets):
    return math.sqrt(ms_error(predictions, targets))


def ms_error(predictions, targets):
    return mean([(p - t)**2 for p, t in zip(predictions, targets)])


def mean_error(predictions, targets):
    return mean([abs(p - t) for p, t in zip(predictions, targets)])


def mean_boolean_error(predictions, targets):
    return mean([(p != t) for p, t in zip(predictions, targets)])

# ______________________________________________________________________________


class DataSet:

    """A data set for a machine learning problem.  It has the following fields:

    d.examples   A list of examples.  Each one is a list of attribute values.
    d.attrs      A list of integers to index into an example, so example[attr]
                 gives a value. Normally the same as range(len(d.examples[0])).
    d.attrnames  Optional list of mnemonic names for corresponding attrs.
    d.target     The attribute that a learning algorithm will try to predict.
                 By default the final attribute.
    d.inputs     The list of attrs without the target.
    d.values     A list of lists: each sublist is the set of possible
                 values for the corresponding attribute. If initially None,
                 it is computed from the known examples by self.setproblem.
                 If not None, an erroneous value raises ValueError.
    d.distance   A function from a pair of examples to a nonnegative number.
                 Should be symmetric, etc. Defaults to mean_boolean_error
                 since that can handle any field types.
    d.name       Name of the data set (for output display only).
    d.source     URL or other source where the data came from.

    Normally, you call the constructor and you're done; then you just
    access fields like d.examples and d.target and d.inputs."""

    def __init__(self, examples=None, attrs=None, attrnames=None, target=-1,
                 inputs=None, values=None, distance=mean_boolean_error,
                 name='', source='', exclude=()):
        """Accepts any of DataSet's fields.  Examples can also be a
        string or file from which to parse examples using parse_csv.
        Optional parameter: exclude, as documented in .setproblem().
        >>> DataSet(examples='1, 2, 3')
        <DataSet(): 1 examples, 3 attributes>
        """
        update(self, name=name, source=source,
               values=values, distance=distance)
        # Initialize .examples from string or list or data directory
        if isinstance(examples, str):
            self.examples = parse_csv(examples)
        elif examples is None:
            self.examples = parse_csv(DataFile(name + '.csv').read())
        else:
            self.examples = examples
        # Attrs are the indices of examples, unless otherwise stated.
        if not attrs and self.examples:
            attrs = list(range(len(self.examples[0])))
        self.attrs = attrs
        # Initialize .attrnames from string, list, or by default
        if isinstance(attrnames, str):
            self.attrnames = attrnames.split()
        else:
            self.attrnames = attrnames or attrs
        self.setproblem(target, inputs=inputs, exclude=exclude)

    def setproblem(self, target, inputs=None, exclude=()):
        """Set (or change) the target and/or inputs.
        This way, one DataSet can be used multiple ways. inputs, if specified,
        is a list of attributes, or specify exclude as a list of attributes
        to not use in inputs. Attributes can be -n .. n, or an attrname.
        Also computes the list of possible values, if that wasn't done yet."""
        self.target = self.attrnum(target)
        exclude = list(map(self.attrnum, exclude))
        if inputs:
            self.inputs = removeall(self.target, inputs)
        else:
            self.inputs = [a for a in self.attrs
                           if a != self.target and a not in exclude]
        if not self.values:
            self.values = list(map(unique, list(zip(*self.examples))))
        self.check_me()

    def check_me(self):
        "Check that my fields make sense."
        assert len(self.attrnames) == len(self.attrs)
        assert self.target in self.attrs
        assert self.target not in self.inputs
        assert set(self.inputs).issubset(set(self.attrs))
        list(map(self.check_example, self.examples))

    def add_example(self, example):
        "Add an example to the list of examples, checking it first."
        self.check_example(example)
        self.examples.append(example)

    def check_example(self, example):
        "Raise ValueError if example has any invalid values."
        if self.values:
            for a in self.attrs:
                if example[a] not in self.values[a]:
                    raise ValueError('Bad value %s for attribute %s in %s' %
                                     (example[a], self.attrnames[a], example))

    def attrnum(self, attr):
        "Returns the number used for attr, which can be a name, or -n .. n-1."
        if isinstance(attr, str):
            return self.attrnames.index(attr)
        elif attr < 0:
            return len(self.attrs) + attr
        else:
            return attr

    def sanitize(self, example):
        "Return a copy of example, with non-input attributes replaced by None."
        return [attr_i if i in self.inputs else None
                for i, attr_i in enumerate(example)]

    def __repr__(self):
        return '<DataSet(%s): %d examples, %d attributes>' % (
            self.name, len(self.examples), len(self.attrs))

# ______________________________________________________________________________


def parse_csv(input, delim=','):
    r"""Input is a string consisting of lines, each line has comma-delimited
    fields.  Convert this into a list of lists.  Blank lines are skipped.
    Fields that look like numbers are converted to numbers.
    The delim defaults to ',' but '\t' and None are also reasonable values.
    >>> parse_csv('1, 2, 3 \n 0, 2, na')
    [[1, 2, 3], [0, 2, 'na']]
    """
    lines = [line for line in input.splitlines() if line.strip()]
    return [list(map(num_or_str, line.split(delim))) for line in lines]

# ______________________________________________________________________________


class CountingProbDist:

    """A probability distribution formed by observing and counting examples.
    If p is an instance of this class and o is an observed value, then
    there are 3 main operations:
    p.add(o) increments the count for observation o by 1.
    p.sample() returns a random element from the distribution.
    p[o] returns the probability for o (as in a regular ProbDist)."""

    def __init__(self, observations=[], default=0):
        """Create a distribution, and optionally add in some observations.
        By default this is an unsmoothed distribution, but saying default=1,
        for example, gives you add-one smoothing."""
        update(self, dictionary={}, n_obs=0.0, default=default, sampler=None)
        for o in observations:
            self.add(o)

    def add(self, o):
        "Add an observation o to the distribution."
        self.smooth_for(o)
        self.dictionary[o] += 1
        self.n_obs += 1
        self.sampler = None

    def smooth_for(self, o):
        """Include o among the possible observations, whether or not
        it's been observed yet."""
        if o not in self.dictionary:
            self.dictionary[o] = self.default
            self.n_obs += self.default
            self.sampler = None

    def __getitem__(self, item):
        "Return an estimate of the probability of item."
        self.smooth_for(item)
        return self.dictionary[item] / self.n_obs

    # (top() and sample() are not used in this module, but elsewhere.)

    def top(self, n):
        "Return (count, obs) tuples for the n most frequent observations."
        return heapq.nlargest(
            n, [(v, k) for (k, v) in list(self.dictionary.items())])

    def sample(self):
        "Return a random sample from the distribution."
        if self.sampler is None:
            self.sampler = weighted_sampler(list(self.dictionary.keys()),
                                            list(self.dictionary.values()))
        return self.sampler()

# ______________________________________________________________________________


def PluralityLearner(dataset):
    """A very dumb algorithm: always pick the result that was most popular
    in the training data.  Makes a baseline for comparison."""
    most_popular = mode([e[dataset.target] for e in dataset.examples])

    def predict(example):
        "Always return same result: the most popular from the training set."
        return most_popular
    return predict

# ______________________________________________________________________________


def NaiveBayesLearner(dataset):
    """Just count how many times each value of each input attribute
    occurs, conditional on the target value. Count the different
    target values too."""

    targetvals = dataset.values[dataset.target]
    target_dist = CountingProbDist(targetvals)
    attr_dists = dict(((gv, attr), CountingProbDist(dataset.values[attr]))
                      for gv in targetvals
                      for attr in dataset.inputs)
    for example in dataset.examples:
        targetval = example[dataset.target]
        target_dist.add(targetval)
        for attr in dataset.inputs:
            attr_dists[targetval, attr].add(example[attr])

    def predict(example):
        """Predict the target value for example. Consider each possible value,
        and pick the most likely by looking at each attribute independently."""
        def class_probability(targetval):
            return (target_dist[targetval] *
                    product(attr_dists[targetval, attr][example[attr]]
                            for attr in dataset.inputs))
        return argmax(targetvals, class_probability)

    return predict

# ______________________________________________________________________________


def NearestNeighborLearner(dataset, k=1):
    "k-NearestNeighbor: the k nearest neighbors vote."
    def predict(example):
        "Find the k closest, and have them vote for the best."
        best = heapq.nsmallest(k, ((dataset.distance(e, example), e)
                                   for e in dataset.examples))
        return mode(e[dataset.target] for (d, e) in best)
    return predict

# ______________________________________________________________________________


class DecisionFork:

    """A fork of a decision tree holds an attribute to test, and a dict
    of branches, one for each of the attribute's values."""

    def __init__(self, attr, attrname=None, branches=None):
        "Initialize by saying what attribute this node tests."
        update(self, attr=attr, attrname=attrname or attr,
               branches=branches or {})

    def __call__(self, example):
        "Given an example, classify it using the attribute and the branches."
        attrvalue = example[self.attr]
        return self.branches[attrvalue](example)

    def add(self, val, subtree):
        "Add a branch.  If self.attr = val, go to the given subtree."
        self.branches[val] = subtree

    def display(self, indent=0):
        name = self.attrname
        print('Test', name)
        for (val, subtree) in list(self.branches.items()):
            print(' ' * 4 * indent, name, '=', val, '==>', end=' ')
            subtree.display(indent + 1)

    def __repr__(self):
        return ('DecisionFork(%r, %r, %r)'
                % (self.attr, self.attrname, self.branches))


class DecisionLeaf:

    "A leaf of a decision tree holds just a result."

    def __init__(self, result):
        self.result = result

    def __call__(self, example):
        return self.result

    def display(self, indent=0):
        print('RESULT =', self.result)

    def __repr__(self):
        return repr(self.result)

# ______________________________________________________________________________


def DecisionTreeLearner(dataset):
    "[Fig. 18.5]"

    target, values = dataset.target, dataset.values

    def decision_tree_learning(examples, attrs, parent_examples=()):
        if len(examples) == 0:
            return plurality_value(parent_examples)
        elif all_same_class(examples):
            return DecisionLeaf(examples[0][target])
        elif len(attrs) == 0:
            return plurality_value(examples)
        else:
            A = choose_attribute(attrs, examples)
            tree = DecisionFork(A, dataset.attrnames[A])
            for (v_k, exs) in split_by(A, examples):
                subtree = decision_tree_learning(
                    exs, removeall(A, attrs), examples)
                tree.add(v_k, subtree)
            return tree

    def plurality_value(examples):
        """Return the most popular target value for this set of examples.
        (If target is binary, this is the majority; otherwise plurality.)"""
        popular = argmax_random_tie(values[target],
                                    lambda v: count(target, v, examples))
        return DecisionLeaf(popular)

    def count(attr, val, examples):
        "Count the number of examples that have attr = val."
        return count(e[attr] == val for e in examples)

    def all_same_class(examples):
        "Are all these examples in the same target class?"
        class0 = examples[0][target]
        return all(e[target] == class0 for e in examples)

    def choose_attribute(attrs, examples):
        "Choose the attribute with the highest information gain."
        return argmax_random_tie(attrs,
                                 lambda a: information_gain(a, examples))

    def information_gain(attr, examples):
        "Return the expected reduction in entropy from splitting by attr."
        def I(examples):
            return information_content([count(target, v, examples)
                                        for v in values[target]])
        N = float(len(examples))
        remainder = sum((len(examples_i) / N) * I(examples_i)
                        for (v, examples_i) in split_by(attr, examples))
        return I(examples) - remainder

    def split_by(attr, examples):
        "Return a list of (val, examples) pairs for each val of attr."
        return [(v, [e for e in examples if e[attr] == v])
                for v in values[attr]]

    return decision_tree_learning(dataset.examples, dataset.inputs)


def information_content(values):
    "Number of bits to represent the probability distribution in values."
    probabilities = normalize(removeall(0, values))
    return sum(-p * log2(p) for p in probabilities)

# ______________________________________________________________________________

# A decision list is implemented as a list of (test, value) pairs.


def DecisionListLearner(dataset):
    """[Fig. 18.11]"""

    def decision_list_learning(examples):
        if not examples:
            return [(True, False)]
        t, o, examples_t = find_examples(examples)
        if not t:
            raise Failure
        return [(t, o)] + decision_list_learning(examples - examples_t)

    def find_examples(examples):
        """Find a set of examples that all have the same outcome under
        some test. Return a tuple of the test, outcome, and examples."""
        unimplemented()

    def passes(example, test):
        "Does the example pass the test?"
        unimplemented()

    def predict(example):
        "Predict the outcome for the first passing test."
        for test, outcome in predict.decision_list:
            if passes(example, test):
                return outcome
    predict.decision_list = decision_list_learning(set(dataset.examples))

    return predict

# ______________________________________________________________________________


def NeuralNetLearner(dataset, sizes):
    """Layered feed-forward network."""

    activations = [[0.0 for i in range(n)] for n in sizes]  # noqa
    weights = []  # noqa

    def predict(example):
        unimplemented()

    return predict


class NNUnit:

    """Unit of a neural net."""

    def __init__(self):
        unimplemented()


def PerceptronLearner(dataset, sizes):
    def predict(example):
        return sum([])
    unimplemented()
# ______________________________________________________________________________


def Linearlearner(dataset):
    """Fit a linear model to the data."""
    unimplemented()
# ______________________________________________________________________________


def EnsembleLearner(learners):
    """Given a list of learning algorithms, have them vote."""
    def train(dataset):
        predictors = [learner(dataset) for learner in learners]

        def predict(example):
            return mode(predictor(example) for predictor in predictors)
        return predict
    return train

# ______________________________________________________________________________


def AdaBoost(L, K):
    """[Fig. 18.34]"""
    def train(dataset):
        examples, target = dataset.examples, dataset.target
        N = len(examples)
        epsilon = 1. / (2 * N)
        w = [1. / N] * N
        h, z = [], []
        for k in range(K):
            h_k = L(dataset, w)
            h.append(h_k)
            error = sum(weight for example, weight in zip(examples, w)
                        if example[target] != h_k(example))
            # Avoid divide-by-0 from either 0% or 100% error rates:
            error = clip(error, epsilon, 1 - epsilon)
            for j, example in enumerate(examples):
                if example[target] == h_k(example):
                    w[j] *= error / (1. - error)
            w = normalize(w)
            z.append(math.log((1. - error) / error))
        return WeightedMajority(h, z)
    return train


def WeightedMajority(predictors, weights):
    "Return a predictor that takes a weighted vote."
    def predict(example):
        return weighted_mode((predictor(example) for predictor in predictors),
                             weights)
    return predict


def weighted_mode(values, weights):
    """Return the value with the greatest total weight.
    >>> weighted_mode('abbaa', [1,2,3,1,2])
    'b'"""
    totals = defaultdict(int)
    for v, w in zip(values, weights):
        totals[v] += w
    return max(list(totals.keys()), key=totals.get)

# _____________________________________________________________________________
# Adapting an unweighted learner for AdaBoost


def WeightedLearner(unweighted_learner):
    """Given a learner that takes just an unweighted dataset, return
    one that takes also a weight for each example. [p. 749 footnote 14]"""
    def train(dataset, weights):
        return unweighted_learner(replicated_dataset(dataset, weights))
    return train


def replicated_dataset(dataset, weights, n=None):
    "Copy dataset, replicating each example in proportion to its weight."
    n = n or len(dataset.examples)
    result = copy.copy(dataset)
    result.examples = weighted_replicate(dataset.examples, weights, n)
    return result


def weighted_replicate(seq, weights, n):
    """Return n selections from seq, with the count of each element of
    seq proportional to the corresponding weight (filling in fractions
    randomly).
    >>> weighted_replicate('ABC', [1,2,1], 4)
    ['A', 'B', 'B', 'C']"""
    assert len(seq) == len(weights)
    weights = normalize(weights)
    wholes = [int(w * n) for w in weights]
    fractions = [(w * n) % 1 for w in weights]
    return (flatten([x] * nx for x, nx in zip(seq, wholes)) +
            weighted_sample_with_replacement(seq, fractions, n - sum(wholes)))


def flatten(seqs): return sum(seqs, [])

# _____________________________________________________________________________
# Functions for testing learners on examples


def test(predict, dataset, examples=None, verbose=0):
    "Return the proportion of the examples that are correctly predicted."
    if examples is None:
        examples = dataset.examples
    if len(examples) == 0:
        return 0.0
    right = 0.0
    for example in examples:
        desired = example[dataset.target]
        output = predict(dataset.sanitize(example))
        if output == desired:
            right += 1
            if verbose >= 2:
                print('   OK: got %s for %s' % (desired, example))
        elif verbose:
            print('WRONG: got %s, expected %s for %s' % (
                output, desired, example))
    return right / len(examples)


def train_and_test(learner, dataset, start, end):
    """Reserve dataset.examples[start:end] for test; train on the remainder.
    Return the proportion of examples correct on the test examples."""
    examples = dataset.examples
    try:
        dataset.examples = examples[:start] + examples[end:]
        return test(learner(dataset), dataset, examples[start:end])
    finally:
        dataset.examples = examples


def cross_validation(learner, dataset, k=10, trials=1):
    """Do k-fold cross_validate and return their mean.
    That is, keep out 1/k of the examples for testing on each of k runs.
    Shuffle the examples first; If trials>1, average over several shuffles."""
    if k is None:
        k = len(dataset.examples)
    if trials > 1:
        return mean([cross_validation(learner, dataset, k, trials=1)
                     for t in range(trials)])
    else:
        n = len(dataset.examples)
        random.shuffle(dataset.examples)
        return mean(
                [train_and_test(learner, dataset, i * (n / k),
                                (i + 1) * (n / k)) for i in range(k)])


def leave1out(learner, dataset):
    "Leave one out cross-validation over the dataset."
    return cross_validation(learner, dataset, k=len(dataset.examples))


def learningcurve(learner, dataset, trials=10, sizes=None):
    if sizes is None:
        sizes = list(range(2, len(dataset.examples) - 10, 2))

    def score(learner, size):
        random.shuffle(dataset.examples)
        return train_and_test(learner, dataset, 0, size)
    return [(size, mean([score(learner, size) for t in range(trials)]))
            for size in sizes]

# ______________________________________________________________________________
# The rest of this file gives datasets for machine learning problems.

orings = DataSet(name='orings', target='Distressed',
                 attrnames="Rings Distressed Temp Pressure Flightnum")


zoo = DataSet(name='zoo', target='type', exclude=['name'],
              attrnames="name hair feathers eggs milk airborne aquatic " +
              "predator toothed backbone breathes venomous fins legs tail " +
              "domestic catsize type")


iris = DataSet(name="iris", target="class",
               attrnames="sepal-len sepal-width petal-len petal-width class")

# ______________________________________________________________________________
# The Restaurant example from Fig. 18.2


def RestaurantDataSet(examples=None):
    "Build a DataSet of Restaurant waiting examples. [Fig. 18.3]"
    return DataSet(name='restaurant', target='Wait', examples=examples,
                   attrnames='Alternate Bar Fri/Sat Hungry Patrons Price ' +
                   'Raining Reservation Type WaitEstimate Wait')

restaurant = RestaurantDataSet()


def T(attrname, branches):
    branches = dict((value, (child if isinstance(child, DecisionFork)
                             else DecisionLeaf(child)))
                    for value, child in list(branches.items()))
    return DecisionFork(restaurant.attrnum(attrname), attrname, branches)

Fig[18, 2] = T('Patrons',
               {'None': 'No', 'Some': 'Yes', 'Full':
                T('WaitEstimate',
                  {'>60': 'No', '0-10': 'Yes',
                   '30-60':
                   T('Alternate', {'No':
                                   T('Reservation', {'Yes': 'Yes', 'No':
                                                     T('Bar', {'No': 'No',
                                                               'Yes': 'Yes'
                                                               })}),
                                   'Yes':
                                   T('Fri/Sat', {'No': 'No', 'Yes': 'Yes'})}),
                   '10-30':
                   T('Hungry', {'No': 'Yes', 'Yes':
                                T('Alternate',
                                  {'No': 'Yes', 'Yes':
                                   T('Raining', {'No': 'No', 'Yes': 'Yes'})
                                   })})})})

__doc__ += """
[Fig. 18.6]
>>> random.seed(437)
>>> restaurant_tree = DecisionTreeLearner(restaurant)
>>> restaurant_tree.display()
Test Patrons
 Patrons = None ==> RESULT = No
 Patrons = Full ==> Test Hungry
     Hungry = Yes ==> Test Type
         Type = Burger ==> RESULT = Yes
         Type = Thai ==> Test Fri/Sat
             Fri/Sat = Yes ==> RESULT = Yes
             Fri/Sat = No ==> RESULT = No
         Type = French ==> RESULT = Yes
         Type = Italian ==> RESULT = No
     Hungry = No ==> RESULT = No
 Patrons = Some ==> RESULT = Yes
"""


def SyntheticRestaurant(n=20):
    "Generate a DataSet with n examples."
    def gen():
        example = list(map(random.choice, restaurant.values))
        example[restaurant.target] = Fig[18, 2](example)
        return example
    return RestaurantDataSet([gen() for i in range(n)])

# ______________________________________________________________________________
# Artificial, generated datasets.


def Majority(k, n):
    """Return a DataSet with n k-bit examples of the majority problem:
    k random bits followed by a 1 if more than half the bits are 1, else 0."""
    examples = []
    for i in range(n):
        bits = [random.choice([0, 1]) for i in range(k)]
        bits.append(int(sum(bits) > k / 2))
        examples.append(bits)
    return DataSet(name="majority", examples=examples)


def Parity(k, n, name="parity"):
    """Return a DataSet with n k-bit examples of the parity problem:
    k random bits followed by a 1 if an odd number of bits are 1, else 0."""
    examples = []
    for i in range(n):
        bits = [random.choice([0, 1]) for i in range(k)]
        bits.append(sum(bits) % 2)
        examples.append(bits)
    return DataSet(name=name, examples=examples)


def Xor(n):
    """Return a DataSet with n examples of 2-input xor."""
    return Parity(2, n, name="xor")


def ContinuousXor(n):
    "2 inputs are chosen uniformly from (0.0 .. 2.0]; output is xor of ints."
    examples = []
    for i in range(n):
        x, y = [random.uniform(0.0, 2.0) for i in '12']
        examples.append([x, y, int(x) != int(y)])
    return DataSet(name="continuous xor", examples=examples)

# ______________________________________________________________________________


def compare(algorithms=[PluralityLearner, NaiveBayesLearner,
                        NearestNeighborLearner, DecisionTreeLearner],
            datasets=[iris, orings, zoo, restaurant, SyntheticRestaurant(20),
                      Majority(7, 100), Parity(7, 100), Xor(100)],
            k=10, trials=1):
    """Compare various learners on various datasets using cross-validation.
    Print results as a table."""
    print_table([[a.__name__.replace('Learner', '')] +
                 [cross_validation(a, d, k, trials) for d in datasets]
                 for a in algorithms],
                header=[''] + [d.name[0:7] for d in datasets], numfmt='%.2f')